Before 1200: Patterns in World History
Chapter 1: Before 1200: Patterns in World History
I. From the Paleolithic Era to the Age of Agriculture
A. Paleolithic Era - Beginning of Human History
Also known as the Old Stone Age.
Represents over 95\% of the time humans have occupied the planet.
Characterized by a hunting and gathering society.
Societal Structure:
Societies were small, typically bands of 25-50 people.
Relationships were highly personal, based on understood kinships.
Mobility:
Paleolithic societies were seasonally mobile or nomadic.
They moved in regular patterns to exploit wild plants and animals.
Social Equality:
Societies were highly egalitarian.
Relationships between women and men were more equal than in many later societies.
Demographics:
Low life expectancy, less than 35 years on average.
Very slow population growth.
Cultural Creativity:
Numerous technological innovations (e.g., tools, use of fire).
Developed sophisticated oral traditions.
Produced significant cave paintings and sculptures, indicating complex symbolic thought.
B. Agricultural Revolution
A Fundamental Transformation: The most fundamental transformation in all of human history.
Nomenclature: Also called the "Neolithic" (New Stone Age) or "Agricultural" Revolution.
Timeline and Scope:
Occurred between 12,000 and 4,000 years ago.
Took place separately and independently in various regions across Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
Core Practice: Involved the deliberate cultivation of plants and domestication of animals.
Gradual Replacement: Gradually replaced gathering and hunting as the primary mode of subsistence in most places.
Profound Transformations in Human Life:
Led to growing human populations.
Fostered the establishment of settled villages.
Introduced new challenges, such as animal-borne diseases due to closer proximity to domesticated animals.
Catalyzed an explosion of technological innovation (e.g., pottery, textiles, metallurgy).
Diverse Outcomes: There was no single outcome or specific type of society that universally emerged from the Agricultural Revolution.
C. Pastoral Societies
Identity: Composed of herders and nomads.
Geographical Niche: Emerged in regions where farming was difficult or impossible, leading to a much heavier reliance on animals.
Primary Locations: Pastoral nomads became prominent in Central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, the Sahara Desert, and parts of eastern and southern Africa.
Movement Patterns: Moved seasonally, following changing patterns of vegetation to provide sustenance for their animals.
Americas Exception: Llamas and alpacas were domesticated in a few pockets of the Americas, forming the only pastoral societies in the Western Hemisphere, as other large domesticated animals were scarce.
Relations with Farming Neighbors: An enduring theme in Afro-Eurasian history involved interactions between nomadic herders and their farming neighbors.
Often resulted in conflict, as pastoralists sought access to agricultural products and richer grazing lands.
Also involved peaceful exchanges of technology, ideas, products, and peoples.
D. Village-based Agricultural Societies
Settlement: Consisted of permanently settled farming villages.
Social Structure: Maintained a substantial degree of social and gender equality reminiscent of hunter-gatherers, typically without kings, chiefs, bureaucrats, or aristocrats.
Historical Significance: These societies flourished into the modern era across Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas.
Often organized by kinship or lineage groups.
Presented an intriguing alternative to states, kingdoms, and empires, demonstrating a viable form of complex society without centralized authority.
Pioneered human settlement of vast areas, adapting to diverse environments.
Maintained social and gender equality to a significant degree.
Created numerous cultural, artistic, and religious traditions unique to their communities.
Interacted continuously with their neighbors through trade, alliances, and occasional conflict.
E. Chiefdoms
Leadership Structure: Characterized by inherited positions of power and privilege.
Nature of Authority: Chiefs, unlike later kings, typically relied on generosity, ritual status, or charisma to govern, rather than direct force or coercion.
Global Emergence: Chiefdoms emerged in all parts of the world, reflecting a common pathway in the development of social hierarchy.
Anthropological Studies: Recent chiefdoms in the Pacific islands have been extensively studied by anthropologists.
Chiefs usually claimed descent from the first son of an imagined ancestor, legitimizing their rule through a sacred lineage.
They fulfilled both secular (governance, resource management) and religious (ritual, spiritual guidance) roles.
Collected tribute (goods, labor) from their communities and redistributed it to privileged groups, including their followers and often the producers themselves.
Kept a portion of the tribute to sustain their own status and the operations of the chiefdom.
North American Example: Chiefdoms such as Cahokia, a large pre-Columbian Native American city near present-day St. Louis, Missouri, emerged in North America, showcasing complex social organization and monumental architecture.
II. Civilizations
A. Most significant outcome of the Agricultural Revolution.
B. Introducing the First Civilizations
Early Emergence: One of the earliest civilizations emerged in Mesopotamia and along the central coast of Peru between 3500 and 3000 B.C.E.
Spread: Began as small islands of innovation and spread globally over the next 4,000 years.
Dominance: By 1200 C.E., the majority of humankind lived in one of these civilizations.
C. Defining Civilizations
Urban and State-Based: Primarily based in cities and governed by states.
Powerful States: Possessed powerful states capable of compelling obedience from their populations and waging large-scale warfare.
Specialization: Featured a new degree of occupational specialization, with distinct roles for various workers (e.g., artisans, scribes, warriors).
Inequality: Exhibited much greater inequality in economic function, wealth distribution, and social status compared to earlier societies.
Patriarchy: A defining characteristic was patriarchy, with pervasive gender inequality and male dominance in public and private life.
Innovations: A hub for artistic, scientific, and technological innovations, driving progress in various fields.
D. Civilizations and the Environment
Environmental Influence: Individual civilizations were significantly influenced by their specific environmental conditions, which shaped their development and practices.
Impact on Landscape: Had a larger and more profound impact on the landscape than earlier societies, largely due to rapid population growth and the demands for resources this entailed (e.g., deforestation, irrigation systems).
III. Civilizations and Cultural Traditions
A. South Asian Cultural Traditions: Hinduism
Origin: Has no single historical founder and is an integral part of Indian civilization, evolving over millennia.
Diversity: Characterized by a great diversity of gods, beliefs, and practices, which are generally overseen by a priestly class known as Brahmins.
The Upanishads: A collection of sacred texts that emerged around 800-400 B.C.E., aimed at fostering a more uniform philosophical understanding of reality.
Central Idea: The concept of Brahman, the World Soul, as the ultimate and unchanging reality underlying all phenomena.
Ultimate Goal: Moksha, the union of the individual soul (atman) with Brahman, signifying liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
Achieving Union: This union was understood to involve many lifetimes of spiritual striving and experience.
Samsara and Karma: Samsara, the cycle of reincarnation or rebirth, is central to the process of achieving moksha, and karma (the cumulative effect of one's actions, thoughts, and words) governs which form one will take in the next life.
Multiple Paths to Final Release: Recognized several legitimate paths to achieve moksha or final release.
Brahmin priests and especially wandering ascetics played a crucial role in spreading these ideas.
Possible paths include: acquiring knowledge or engaging in rigorous study, performing ordinary daily work with dedication, cultivating passionate devotion (bhakti) to a specific deity, or engaging in extended meditation practice.
B. South Asian Cultural Traditions: Buddhism
Development: Developed side-by-side with philosophical Hinduism in ancient India.
Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 566-ca. 486 B.C.E.): The founder of Buddhism.
His spiritual journey led to enlightenment (profound insight into the nature of reality and suffering) at age 29.
His followers later recognized him as the Buddha, meaning "the awakened one."
Central Buddhist Teaching: The Four Noble Truths (summarized)
The first central teaching is that life is suffering (dukkha).
The cause of suffering is craving for individual fulfillment and attachment to self (tanha).
The "cure" for suffering is to live a modest and moral life and engage in meditation, following the "eightfold path" (right views, aspirations, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and meditation).
The ultimate goal is the achievement of enlightenment or nirvana (the extinguishing of individual identity, desire, and suffering).
Elements Shared with Hinduism:
The concept of life as an illusion.
The doctrines of karma and rebirth (samsara).
The importance of overcoming the demands of the ego or selfish desires.
The practice of meditation as a spiritual tool.
The hope for release from the cycle of rebirth.
Challenges to Hinduism:
Rejection of Brahmin Authority: Challenged the religious authority of the Brahmins and the associated elaborate rituals.
Lack of Abstract Speculation: Showed a relative lack of interest in abstract philosophical speculation, focusing instead on practical path to liberation.
Individual Responsibility: Emphasized the need for individuals to take personal responsibility for their own spiritual development, rather than relying on priests or deities.
Challenge to Caste System: Challenged the inequalities inherent in the Hindu caste system, offering a path to salvation accessible to all regardless of social standing.
Theravada Buddhism ("The Teaching of the Elders"):
An early and more conservative version of Buddhism.
Viewed Buddha as a wise teacher and role model, but not as divine.
Emphasized a rigorous, time-consuming path to enlightenment, primarily accessible to monks and ascetics.
Mahayana Buddhism:
Developed early in the Common Era, representing a significant evolution in Buddhist thought.
Made the path to enlightenment more accessible to those beyond monks and ascetics, including ordinary laypeople.
Taught that enlightenment was available to all in the context of ordinary life, not just through monastic renunciation.
Placed a strong emphasis on compassion (karuna) and the ideal of the bodhisattva (one who postpones their own nirvana to help others achieve enlightenment).
Dealt with a more supernatural dimension, incorporating new cosmic Buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Helped Buddhism to become the first major religion to spread widely outside its homeland in India.
Spread and Decline of the Bhakti Movement:
The bhakti movement, emphasizing the worship of specific deities, began in south India.
During the first millennium C.E., it contributed to the development of a more popular and accessible form of Hinduism.
Its ideas were often expressed in epic poems such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
This devotional path made Hinduism more accessible to ordinary people, offering a direct, personal connection to the divine.
C. Chinese Cultural Traditions: Confucianism
Nature: Along with Daoism, it was a foundational Chinese civilization tradition.
Less overtly religious and more philosophical and rational.
More oriented toward life in this world and the establishment of a harmonious society.
Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.): An educated and ambitious aristocrat.
Confucius's ideas had an enormous and lasting impact on China and the rest of East Asia.
His teachings were collected by his students in a work known as The Analects.
Later scholars elaborated upon and commented on his ideas, creating Confucianism as a comprehensive body of thought.
Moral Behavior: Believed that the power of moral behavior, exemplified by rulers and individuals, was the answer to societal disorder.
Society was understood to consist of unequal relationships (e.g., father-son, ruler-subject, husband-wife, older brother-younger brother, friend-friend).
It was the duty of the superior member in these relationships to be sincere, benevolent, and genuinely concerned for the welfare of the inferior member.
Such virtuous conduct was expected to inspire deference and obedience from the inferior member, creating social harmony.
The Family as a Model: Emphasized the family as the fundamental model for political and social life.
Placed a strong emphasis on filial piety (respect for one's parents and elders) as a cornerstone of moral behavior.
Moral Improvement and Education: Believed that humans have an inherent capacity for moral improvement, and education was the key to unlocking this potential.
Advocated for a broad liberal arts education, including literature, history, philosophy, and ritual.
Emphasized the application of this liberal arts education to address challenging government problems, fostering virtuous and knowledgeable officials.
Stressed the need for ritual and ceremonies to cultivate proper behavior and respect for social hierarchy.
Central to Educational System: Confucianism became a central element of the Chinese educational system, shaping the training of civil servants and the elite.
Historical Importance: Emphasized the great importance of history, viewing the past as a guide for the present and future.
Believed the ideal good society existed in a past golden age, which served as a model to be emulated.
Defined "superior men" as individuals with outstanding moral character and intellect, not just aristocrats, making merit and virtue achievable through effort.
Expectations for Government: Created high expectations for government officials and emperors, urging them to keep taxes low, administer justice fairly, and provide for the material needs of the people.
Nonreligious Character: Confucianism was nonreligious in its character, focusing on human morality and societal governance.
Its emphasis was practical, oriented toward this world and human relationships.
While it did not deny the existence of gods and spirits, the educated elite who embraced Confucianism had little direct engagement with them in their philosophical teachings.
Regional Appeal: Its principles were attractive to other East Asian societies, including Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.
For example, Japan's Seventeen Article Constitution in the 7^{th} century C.E. encouraged both Buddhist and Confucian principles in governance and ethics.
D. Chinese Cultural Traditions: Daoism
Association: Associated with the legendary figure Laozi (sixth century B.C.E.), who is traditionally credited as the author of the Daodejing (The Way and Its Power).
Contrast with Confucianism: In many ways, Daoism presented a philosophical counterpoint to Confucianism.
Argued that structured education and the striving for moral or societal improvement were artificial and ultimately useless, leading to human suffering.
Instead, urged a withdrawal into the world of nature and spontaneous natural behavior.
Central Concept: Dao: The central concept is dao, meaning "the way of nature," which is understood as the underlying, guiding principle that governs all natural phenomena and the cosmos.
Disengagement from Public Life: Daoism invited disengagement with public life, political involvement, and social striving.
Followers yearned to connect deeply with nature, finding harmony and peace there.
Advocated for simple, self-sufficient living, minimizing desires and external dependencies.
Promoted the idea of limited government, believing that too much governance interfered with the natural order.
Encouraged the abandonment of formal education and active self-improvement, advocating for effortless living in alignment with the dao.
Complementary for Elite: For elite Chinese, Daoism was often regarded as a complement to Confucianism.
The concept of yin and yang represents the unity or complementarity of opposites in nature, a principle often associated with Daoist thought, showing how seemingly contradictory forces can coexist and balance each other.
Popular Religion: Daoism eventually entered popular religion:
Practitioners sought to tap the power of the dao for practical purposes, including magic, alchemy, and the quest for immortality.
It provided an ideology for peasant rebellions, such as the Yellow Turban Rebellion, which drew on Daoist concepts of harmony and social justice to challenge the established order.
E. Middle Eastern Cultural Traditions: Judaism and Christianity
Monotheistic Core: Monotheistic faith systems fundamentally developed in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Judaism: Developed among the Hebrews, forming a key part of the broader Abrahamic faith tradition.
Distinctive Conception of God:
Introduced a powerful and jealous deity who demanded exclusive loyalty from its followers.
This divine being was personal and accessible, available to communicate with and relate to humanity.
Over time, the conception of God evolved from primarily a god of war to a more profound representation of social justice and compassion.
Foundation: Judaism served as the foundational religious and ethical tradition for both Christianity and Islam.
Christianity: Began in a Jewish cultural setting, building upon its monotheistic and ethical frameworks.
Jesus of Nazareth (ca. 4 B.C.E. – 29 C.E.): The founder of Christianity, often regarded as a "wisdom teacher."
Teachings: Challenged conventional (Roman and some Jewish) values, urging renunciation of wealth and material possessions.
Stressed love or compassion (agape) as "the great commandment" and the basis of morality, extending even to one's enemies.
Gained a reputation as a healer and miracle worker, attracting many followers.
Maintained the strict monotheistic Jewish tradition of a single personal deity.
His teaching had a sharp social and political edge, often critiquing the powerful and wealthy.
Spoke profoundly on behalf of the poor, the oppressed, and the "impure" or marginalized in society.
Ultimately executed as a criminal by Roman authorities.
Initially, Jesus himself had not intended to create a new religion, but rather to reform Judaism.
How Christianity Became a World Religion:
The process began most significantly with Saint Paul (ca. 6-67 C.E.), who reinterpreted Jesus's message.
Paul promoted an inclusive message, suggesting that salvation was available not just to Jews but to all Gentiles (non-Jews) who believed in Christ.
Its exclusive monotheism, requiring sole devotion to God, set it apart from polytheistic systems.
Roman Persecution: Christians faced Roman persecution, often branded as "atheists" for their antagonism to all divine powers (the Roman pantheon) except their one God.
Persecution ended with the conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity in 380 C.E., leading to its eventual establishment as the official religion of the Roman Empire.
Spread of Christianity:
Paul played a critical role in spreading Christianity, especially to the eastern Roman Empire through his missionary journeys.
It gained official status in significant regions like Armenia and Axum (modern-day Ethiopia) before much of the Roman Empire.
During the first 6 centuries of its existence, most followers were concentrated in the Middle East and parts of Africa.
Organizational Development: Christianity developed a male hierarchical organization.
Women were generally excluded from the priesthood and formal leadership roles within the church.
The initial lack of uniform doctrine and practice led to theological debates and councils.
The emergence of the bishop of Rome (the Pope) as a dominant leader in Western Europe eventually led to a major split between the Latin (Roman Catholic) and Greek (Eastern Orthodox) branches of Christendom, formalized in the Great Schism of 1054 C.E.
F. Middle Eastern Cultural Traditions: Islam
Historical Significance: Islam is enormously significant in world history.
Born during the 7^{th} century C.E. in the Arabian Peninsula.
Rapidly expanded to encompass parts of Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia.
Led to the creation of a new and innovative civilization, often referred to as Dar-al Islam (the abode of Islam), signifying a vast cultural and religious realm.
Arabia Context: At the time of Islam's emergence, Arabia contained a diverse mix of pastoral nomadic peoples, settled agricultural communities, and commercial cities (like Mecca).
It was on the periphery of the powerful Byzantine and Sassanid Empires, absorbing influences from both.
The Prophet Muhammad (Muhammad Ibn Abdullah, 570-632 C.E.): The catalyst for the emergence of Islam.
A revered trader from the commercial city of Mecca.
Frequently took to withdrawal and meditation in the surrounding hills.
Around 610 C.E., he had powerful, overwhelming religious experiences, receiving revelations from Allah (God).
These divine revelations were recorded in the Quran, which Muslims believe to be the literal word of God.
Revolutionary Teachings:
Monotheism: Absolutely monotheistic, proclaiming Allah as the sole divine being, reinforcing the monotheistic tradition of Abrahamic faiths.
Prophethood: Declared Muhammad as "the Messenger of God," the final prophet in a line that included Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.
Social Critique: Denounced the social practices of Mecca, particularly its polytheism, economic inequality, and exploitation of the poor.
New Society (Umma): Called for the creation of a new society (umma) based on principles of social justice, equality, and care for others, united under a common faith.
Early Challenges and Success:
Muhammad was forced to leave Mecca in 622 C.E. (the Hijra) and migrated to Medina due to persecution.
Through a combination of military successes and diplomatic alliances, he consolidated Islamic control throughout Arabia by the time of his death in 632 C.E.
Post-Muhammad Events: His death was followed by a civil war over succession.
This led to an enduring division between the Sunni and Shia branches of Islam, primarily based on different understandings of religious authority and leadership.
Global Civilization (Cultural Aspects):
United by the Quran, deep respect for Muhammad's teachings and example (Sunnah), ritual prayer 5 times a day facing Mecca, and the pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca for those able.
The ulama, a group of learned scholars, played a crucial role in interpreting Islamic law and tradition, helping to unite the diverse Islamic world.
Formal colleges called madrassas began to emerge in the 11^{th} century, serving as centers of Islamic learning.
Sufism:
Represented Islam's mystical dimension, emphasizing an inner, spiritual path to direct experience of God.
Emerged by the year 1000 C.E.
Focused on the pursuit of an interior life, self-purification, and divine love.
Often critical of the scholarly and legalistic practitioners of the sharia (Islamic law), advocating for a more experiential faith.
Became central to mainstream Islam from approximately 1100 to 1800 C.E., profoundly influencing Islamic culture, poetry, and art.
Especially significant in frontier regions, where Sufi holy men often played a role in converting non-Muslims.
Emphasized a personal experience of the Divine, often through asceticism, dhikr (remembrance of God), and unique spiritual practices.
Earned enmity from some among the more conservative ulama and strict adherents to the sharia, who viewed some Sufi practices as unorthodox or even heretical.
IV. Interactions and Encounters
A. Empire
Setting for Encounters: Empires frequently served as the primary setting for encounters between culturally different societies.
Arenas for Exchange: They created vast arenas for the exchange of products, foods, ideas, religions, and even diseases, facilitating unprecedented cross-cultural interactions.
B. Commercial Exchange
Historical Motor: Long-distance trade acted as a powerful motor of historical change, connecting distant peoples and driving economic, social, and cultural transformations.
Silk Roads:
Began around 200 B.C.E.
Operated for over 1500 years.
Linked China and the Mediterranean world, primarily facilitating the exchange of luxury goods, technologies, and cultural ideas across Eurasia.
Sea Roads:
Operated around the same time as the Silk Roads.
Consisted of sea-based networks that traversed the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.
Linked people and goods between southern China and East Africa, fostering robust maritime trade and cultural diffusion.
Sand Roads:
Also known as trans-Saharan trade routes.
Linked North Africa and the Mediterranean world with the interior of West Africa, primarily through camel caravans, facilitating the exchange of diverse goods, including gold, salt, slaves, and ideas.
V. Reflections: Religion and Historians
A. Attempting to understand the religious dimension of human life has caused tensions and misunderstandings between scholars and believers.
Concept of Change: Historians typically view human life and societies as constantly changing and evolving, rooted in tangible, observable processes.
Religions, conversely, often present concepts of eternity, the supernatural, and ancient/spiritual practices as unchanging truths, which can clash with historical methodologies.
Authenticity: Debates often arise regarding which version or group represents the most "genuine" or original version of a faith.
Historians often refrain from taking sides in such theological debates, focusing instead on studying the historical development, interpretations, and impact of various religious expressions.
B. Acknowledging the immense human effort in creating religious traditions, and their enormous significance.
Shaping Meaning: Religious traditions profoundly shape the meaning that people attach to their world, providing frameworks for understanding existence, purpose, and morality.
Justification: They can be used to justify social inequalities and oppressive human civilizations by imbuing them with divine sanction or inherent natural order.
Endurance of Suffering: Religions enable people to endure suffering, persecution, and hardship by offering spiritual comfort, hope for an afterlife, or a sense of divine purpose in adversity.
Stimulating Reform and Rebellion: Conversely, religious ideals and movements can also stimulate reform and rebellion, inspiring people to challenge unjust systems in the name of divine will or ethical principles (e.g., the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Christian movements for social justice).