Autoclave: sanitation device

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): a device used to make multiple copies of a piece of DNA rapidly

Gel Electrophoresis: the method used to separate RNA/DNA or proteins according to their size

Perfusion: the passage of blood/blood substitute through the blood vessels or other natural channels in an organ or tissue

Cell/Neuron Culture: growing cells/neurons in a petri dish

Transfection: the process of deliberately introducing purified into the eukaryotic cell

Cryostat: a device used to section frozen dead tissue into uM thickness for staining

Immunostaining: stains particular protein fluorescent colors

RNA in situ Hybridization: stains particular genes with fluorescent colors

Calcium Imaging: a microscope technique to measure the calcium status of an isolated cell/tissue/medium, taking advantage of calcium indicators (GCaMP)

Calcium Indicators (GCaMP): fluorescent molecules that respond to the binding of calcium ions by fluorescence properties

Electrophysiology: the study of the electrical properties of biological circuits within cells, tissues whole organs, and systems; a measure of action potentials (extracellular)

Voltage Clamp: an experimental method used to measure ion currents while holding the membrane at a set level (intracellular)

Patch Clamp: using a small glass pipette to study the movement of currents and ionotropic receptors/channels

CT: uses x-rays to see 2D structures; Cheap; damaging

MRI: measures hydrogen proteins to see 3D structures; safe

fMRI: uses blood/oxygen level to look at function

PET: uses dyes to look at function; expensive; harmful

EEG/MEG: used to measure changes in electricity without single neuron level precision

Model Organisms: commonly non-human species that are used in the lab to help scientists understand biological processes

RNA Interference: temporarily stops a particular gene from being expressed (stops production of a specific protein) by degrading mRNA

Knockout Animal: permanently removes a gene from an animal’s DNA, therefore making sure protein is no longer produced/produced less

Ablation: temporarily kills whole neurons

Cre: recombinase that catalyzes the site-specific (loxP) DNA recombination; from bacteriophage

Optogenetics: using light to silence/excite particular neurons

Common Cre Mouse Lines →

Cre-ER: requires a mouse to be fed Tamoxifen to activate; does not allow all neurons to express Cre.

TdTomato: red fluorescent color

PLAP/IAP: stains neurons blue in white light (can see w/ eye)

DTX/DTR: ablation with diphtheria

DREDD: artificially designed protein receptor that responds to the action CNO

Arch/Channel Rhodopsin: optogenetic silencing/excitation of neurons

GFP (green Fluorescent Protein): glows green in fluorescent light

GCaMp: a genetic calcium indicator protein that will glow green in the presence of calcium

Motor Unit: a single motor neuron + the many muscle fibers it synapses with

Alpha/Lower Motor Neurons: motor neurons that synapse with the muscle

Neuromuscular Junctions (NMJ): excitatory synapse where the neurotransmitter acetylcholine binds to nicotinic receptor which opens to allow sodium into and potassium out at a 2:1 ratio to generate a graded potential

Motor Unit Recruitment: vary the number of active motor units (spatial summation)

Motor Unit Rate Modulation: varying the firing rate of active motor units (temporal summation

Motor Neurons: receive synaptic input from sensory, spinal, and supraspinal neurons

Lower Motor Neurons: the only kind of neuron that synapses with and activates skeletal muscle fibers; begins in the spinal cord and goes to innervate muscles and glands throughout the body

Upper Motor Neurons: originate in the cerebral cortex and travel down to the brain stem/spinal cord

Reflexes: an action that is performed as a response to a stimulus and without conscious thought

Interneuron: connect the sensory system to the motor system

Muscle stretch reflex: occurs in response to muscle stretch; requires no learning; rapid and predictable response

Automatic Postural Response: predicts the forward movement and compensates in advance by instructing the calf muscle to contract and extending the ankle

Pre-Frontal Cortex: abstract through, decision making, anticipation of consequences of actions

Posterior Parietal Cortex: planning movement and spatial awareness; mental image of body orientation ⇒ somatosensory, proprioceptive & visual outputs

Neocortex: comprises the largest part of the cerebral cortex; responsible for neuronal computations of attention, thought, perception, and episodic memory

Supplemental Motor Area (SMA): planning complex movement of contralateral extremities

Premotor Cortex (PMA): prepares & executes movements of limbs through coordination with other parts of the brain; encodes a strategy for voluntary movement

Primary Motor Cortex (M1): initialing movement; sending neural signals

Motor Cortex: 3 different areas of the frontal lobe ( M1, PMA, SMA), where upper motor neurons give instructions for voluntary movement

Cerebellum: involved in the timing of the MUA & error connection (movement accuracy)

   Basal Ganglia: involved in selecting which muscles to activate