Chapter 24: Cold War America (1945-1963)

Yalta Conference/Big Three (February 1945): Meeting with the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) as war in Europe neared its end. They discussed affairs regarding Germany, Poland, Japan, and the UN. It was decided that Germany be divided into 4 zones, each going to an allied power. Roosevelt also pushed Stalin to agree to the Declaration of Liberated Europe, permitting self-determination and democracy in Eastern Europe. Roosevelt had also pushed  “free and unfettered elections” in certain European nations, however, Stalin blocked the proposal. Leaders created the United Nations, decided the partition of Berlin, and urged Stalin to join the fight in Japan. 

United Nations: a new international body set to replace the unsuccessful League of nations. The UN was set to have a General Assembly to represent all nations and a separate Security Council with membership from the five Allied powers as well as several rotating nations. The Security Council would have the ability to veto decisions of the General Assembly. 

Potsdam Conference (July 1945): a later meeting of the Big Three after war in Europe was over. Truman had now replaced FDR with little international experience. The leaders discussed the fate of Germany after the war. America wanted Germany’s economic revival since they believed it would prevent the rise of communism. Germany's economy was also essential to global markets. The Sovietes, however, wanted to extract reparations from Germany. They agreed that Stalin could extract reparations only in the Soviet controlled zone. This meeting highlighted turmoil and differing views of the two nations. 

Containment: US strategy against the Soviet Union and the spread of communism. They sought to do whatever it took to limit communism and its influence. The goal was to stop the USSR from expanding and spreading communism abroad. Initially, this policy was aimed at Eastern Europe, but later extended to Asia as well. 

Truman Doctrine (1947): Truman’s commitment to American policy of containment. It stated that it was America's responsibility to support free people threatened by communism. This came in response to soviet aggressions in Greece and Turkey. The US would lend monetary and military support to those in need. Congress then approved $300 million and $100 million of aid to Greece and Turkey.

Marshall Plan (1947): US financial relief program for European nations created by Secretary of State George Marshall. In 1948, the  plan provided money for European nations to recover economically and rebuild after the war. The US hoped that by providing aid, the European nations would be less likely to turn to communism. Initially Republicans didn’t support the plan, however, it was passed and $13 billion was given to Western Europe. The money proved a successful investment as industry and markets grew. 

Berlin Airlift: The Western allies united their German zones and created the Independent German Republic in 1947. Staling reacted by blockading all traffic to West Berlin in 1948. He did so in hopes of absorbing West Berlin into the soviet zone. Allies instituted the Berlin Airlift, transporting food and fuel into West Berlin via aircraft. Stalin ended the blockade in 1949 and West Berlin became a symbol of anti-communism. 

NATO (1948): a military alliance created by the US and its allies. Specifically 12 nations came together. Allied nations agreed that in the event of an attack on one nation, they will come to each other's defense (1 for all, all for 1). They also created the Federal Republic of Germany (west), and Stalin created the German Democratic Republic (east). 

Warsaw Pact: Eastern European response to NATO. The pact was also a military alliance for Eastern European nations. Its members included many communist nations such as Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the USSR. Creation of these pacts heightened cold war tensions. 

NSC-68 (1950): top-secret report delivered by the US National Security Council. Marked a turning point in American Cold War policies. It forced a massive buildup of weapons in order to combat Soviet communism. It created higher taxes to support military budget growth and the development of new weapons. America forever became a military mobilized nation. 

38th parallel: after WWII Korea was divided at the 38th parallel. North Korea was a communist state and was supported by the USSR. South Korea was supported by the US. The Korean War began in 1950 after North Korea launched a surprise attack. The UN approved aid and armed force under the leadership of General MacArthur. The UN was able to reach the border of China, however, Chinese counterattack forced them back. Upon the end of the Korean war, the 38th parallel was restored. This is one of the first Cold War proxy wars. 

Taft-Hartley Act (1947): a republican act passed in order to restrict organized labor forces. Truman vetoed the bill, however, a republican majority in congress overturned the veto. Amended the 1935 National Labor Relations Act which protected workers from unfair labor practices. Taft-Hartley limited workers’ rights to unionize by restricting strikes. The Act also forced unions to reject communist despite their success at organized labor. 

Loyalty-Security Program (1947): created by Truman in the Executive Order 9835. The program was created in response to the Red Scare as Truman sought to protect the government from Communist infiltration. The program allowed for the investigation of federal employees for “subversive” activities and it caused a drastic increase in the power of the government. The legislation allowed investigation of any subversions, which was not the original intent, however, it led to investigations across all sectors. 

HUAC/Hollywood Ten (1938): The House Un-American Activities Committee was founded by a group of conservatives to investigate disloyalty among Americans. The HUAC stimulated the Red Scare by publicizing hearings about potential communist in the movie industry. The Hollywood Ten were targeted, however, when refusing to testify they were jailed. Anybody but on the black list struggled to find jobs and grow their career afterwards.  

Alger Hiss: former New Dealer and State Department official accused of being a Communist supporter. Hiss denied any allegations, but was sentenced to five years in prison for lying to congress about his past Communist affiliations. Although Hiss was not found guilty of spying, evidence confirmed suspicions. 

McCarthyism: anti-Communist campaign led by Senator McCarthy. McCarthy gave a speech in 1950, claiming he had a list of 205 names of current government officials who were communists. Although this was not proven to be true, he fueled the Red Scare in American society. 

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg (1951): a couple accused of espionage by sharing atomic bomb secrets to the USSR. They were found guilty and executed in 1953, though later evidence only proved Julius’s guilt. Some argued that anti-Semitism played a role in Rosenbergs’ case. The Rosenberg trial gave McCarthyism more credibility, even though he wasn’t directly involved with the case. 

modern Republicanism: Eisenhower’s domestic policies as President. Modern Republicanism referred to a middle ground between liberal Democrats and conservative Republicans. Eisenhower embraced a more moderate form of the New Deal and did not end it. He expanded Social Security, increased the minimum wage, however, he wanted to have more controlled government spending. 

Khrushchev/peaceful coexistence: succeeded Stalin in 1956 and denounced him, changing the tone of the Cold War. Krushchtev called for “peaceful coexistence” with the west. However, this did not mean that there would be an end to the Cold War. Rather, it meant that the USSR and the US would continue to compete, but there would be no actual wars. 

“New Look” defense policy: created in order to limit the cost of containment. Also created in order to limit the cost of containment. Therefore, it prioritized nuclear weapons instead of traditional forces. The policy called for increased production of the h-bomb and long range bombing capabilities. However, this  military production sparked an arms race with the USSR, as they were right behind the US. 

Third World: a term used to describe developing nations (post colonial rule) who did not align with the US or USSR. Often these nations were in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East. 

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA): created in 1947 by the National Security Act. The CIA was established to counter the Soviet threat through cover operations and gather intelligence about foreign governments. The CIA became a force present in many nations, interfering with Asian and Latin American politics. 

Vietminh/Ho Chi Minh: Vietminh was a nationalist movement in Vietnam resisting imperial control. After WWII, the Vietminh was under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh who gained control of North Vietnam. Minh was a Communist, so the US opposed him. 

domino theory: a theory created by Eisenhower that suggests if one noncommunist power fell, neighboring nations would also turn towards communism. Eisenhower believed the US needed to combat communism specifically in Vietminh to ensure domino theory didn’t transpire. 

fall of Dien Bien Phu/Geneva Accords: among the Vietnamese battles with France, the French was defeated at the fortress of Dien Bien Phu in 1954. America was aiding French efforts, but it was not enough after the effects of WWII. The Geneva Accords began in 1954 and divided Vietnam temporarily at the 17th parallel and called for new elections. The US was not in support of the Geneva Accords and they did not support unification 

Eisenhower Doctrine: published in 1957 in response to Soviet influence in the Middle East, mainly by Egypt. The Doctrine stated that the US would combat communisms in the Middle East by supporting any Middle Eastern nation facing communist aggression. The Middle East held economic and resources importance to the US. The US now had full commitment to containment and would set precedent for the world moving forward. 

Bay of Pigs (1961): Kennedy’s failed attempt to invade Cuba and dispose of Fidel Castro. Castro was a threat to American business interest in Cuba as he nationalized American dominated industries. The US trained Cuban exiles with the CIA to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro. However, the group was ill-prepared and easily crushed by Castro. Kennedy took full responsibility for the event and further increased tensions. 

Cuban missile crisis (1962): the US had discovered the Soviets were building a military base to launch missiles in Cuba. Kennedy ordered a blockade on all military equipment entering Cuba from the USSR. The Soviets ultimately backed down and removed the missiles as long as Kenneday agreed not to invade Cuba. The US also removed missiles from Turkey. The Cuban missile crisis was the closest the two nations came to full scale war. 

Peace Corps: non military program launched by Kennedy in 1961. The Corps consisted of young volunteers to provide humanitarian aid in foreign countries. Volunteers spread American skills of education, infrastructure, and more. This modeled American soft power during the cold war. 

National Liberation Front (NLF)/Vietcong (1970): a revolutionary communist movement in Vietnam that opposes Diem (dictator in South Vietnam). The Guerrilla forces were known as Vietcong. The NFL formed to overthrow the South Vietnamese government. Vietcong supported North Vietnam and fought against the South in violent ways.  They raided villages and stormed towns taking citizens. 

Chapter 25: Triumph of the Middle Class (1945-1963)

Bretton Woods/World Bank/International Monetary Fund (IMF) (1944): a system created at the international conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, for the new global economy. The World Bank and IMF were institutions created at the conference. The World Bank gave financial assistance to Europe to help rebuild and to help develop third world nations. The IMF was created to stabilize currency and create an environment for global trade. The American dollar was the benchmark for currency exchanges. The Bretton Woods system favored the US. 

military industrial complex: the relationship between military, defense industry, and the government. The American economy grew to become dependent on the military as military industry employed 3.5 million people. Additionally, as companies grew prosperous they again had a large say in government policy, posing a potential threat to democracy. The military industry began to back 10% of America's GDP. 

Sputnik (1957): first satellite created by the USSR. This sparked fear in America as they believed they were falling behind in the space race, science, and technology. Eisenhow took further measures to address this. 

National Defense Education Act (1958): part of Eisnehows attempt to fund R&D in America to catch up with the USSR. The act funded American universities, helping them establish themselves as research centers. Funding also helped certain students obtain higher education. 

The Affluent Society (1950): a book written by economist John Kenneth Galbraith. The book looked at the successes of the middle class and argued that the wealthy elite did not care for the poor. Though the US economy was prospering, consumer culture was leading to an increased wealth gap.

The Other America (1962): written by Michael Harrington, a social critic. The book addressed America’s neglect of the lower class. He wanted to bring attention to the poor and the lives they lived compared to the middle/upper class.

The GI Bill (1944): intended to provide support for WWII veterans. The Bill provided higher education, unemployment benefits, loans, and medical care. The Bill had a high contribution to growing education and white collar jobs in America. This led to the creation of a new middle class, and one of the most important educational transformations. 

Veterans Administration: a federal agency that aided WWII veterans, specifically to buy homes. This increased home ownership as so many served in the war. Additionally, Americans saw a building boom, creating more construction jobs. Economic aid also contributed to the creation of the middle class, consumerism, and suburbanization. 

collective bargaining: a new practice of negotiations between trade unions and employers. After the war Unions continued to gain power, thus bargaining became more popular. Workers gained higher wages and more benefits. Bargaining often replaced strikes. 

planned obsolescence: encouragement for consumers to constantly replace old appliances and cars as they quickly became obsolete. Industry was fueled by people's desire to constantly replaced products. This was also a marketing tactic for companies as it led to large consumer consumption as new designs were constantly produced. 

Beats: a group of white writers and poets that were converted in NYC and San Fran. The Beats rejected the middle class and mainstream culture. They advocated for personal freedom such as drug use, casual sex, and spirituality. They spread beliefs through literature which inspired a new generation of rebels. 

baby boom:after WWII there was a baby boom that lasted until 1965. The increased birth rate was caused by decreased marital ages and was a very abnormal spike. Later on, when baby boomers faced competition for jobs and social security. 

Dr. Spock: author of many parent books popular during the baby boom. His books sold millions of copies.  Spock was an advocate for more liberal parenting and motherhood. However, he was unable to reassure women and his views remained somewhat conservative. 

Mattachine Society(1955): first gay rights organization in the US. While membership was low, members were bold activists who wanted equal rights and legalization of same-sex marriages. To gain support from Americans, members created a respectable image by dressing and acting in a conservative manner. 

Levittown: suburban housing units created by William J. Levitt. Levittowns were created with mass-produced construction techniques to make housing cheaper and more efficient. All houses were the same and many began to spring up. The FHA and Veterans Administration helped many Americans afford housing, thus, increasing homeownership. However, only white Americans were permitted to live her. 

Shelley v. Kraemer (1948): a Supreme Court ruling that outlawed restrictive or discriminative housing. However, actual practice of discrimination in housing was not banned, so policies such as redlining continued.

National Interstate and Defense Highway Act (1956): an act created by Eisenhower as suburban areas grew and more Americans traveled to work via car. The NIDHA authorized $26 billion for construction of national highways. Cold War ideology also paved the way for highways as they were to increase evacuation speed in the instance of a nuclear attack.This is marked to be larger than the New Deal. 

Ray Kroc/McDonald’s: the creator of fast food culture. Kroc worked his way to owning McDonalds. He built chains that held drive throughs. With the increased use of cars many flooded to McDonalds for cheap and easy meals. Highlights public need for convenience. 

Sunbelt: southern and southwestern states. During WWII, military production was centered in the sunbelt. Therefore, increased government defense spending due to the Cold War and shifted political power from the north to the Sunbelt. The defense industry led to rapid migration of people from the north to the sunbelt contributing to suburbanization. 

Kerner Commission: a report that examined the causes of the violent urban race riots that occurred in 1967. The Kerner Commision warned that the US was becoming increasingly divided and society would become entirely racially divided and unequal. To combat racial problems, the Commission Called for federal funding to aid African American communities. 

Chapter 26: Walking into Freedom Land: The Civil Rights Movement (1941-1973)

rights liberalism: the origins of the civil rights movement redefined American liberalism in the form of rights liberalism. This refers to the idea that the state should protect individuals from discrimination by race, sexuality, and gender. Rather than just social welfare, rights liberalism focused on individuals' identities. 

Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters: the most prominent black trade union created by A. Philip Randolph. Members were mostly railroad car porters who worked for the Pullman Company. They sought to incite a march on Washington in protest for equality among defense jobs for blacks (during WWII). However, this threat led FDR to issue Executive Order 8802 and ban racial discrimination in defense industries. Randolph then canceled the march. 

Jackie Robinson: the first African American to be accepted into the MLB when he joined the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947. This achievement was seen as a symbolic victory for the civil rights movement as Robisnon pushed racial boundaries. However, he faced heavy backlash from white fans. 

States’ Rights Democratic Party/Dixiecrats (1948): a new group of southern Democrats who broke away from the Democratic party. They opposed Truman and created such a part when he went for reelection. The party highlighted growing divisions in the democratic party as southern democrats did not agree with liberal democrats on civil rights legislation.

Thurgood Marshall: NAACP lawyer who worked on cases against racial discrimination. He worked with 6 other lawyers to win many cases related to civil rights. The premise of many of these cases was to use the 14th amendment to overturn Plessy v. Ferguson which established “separate but equal” America. Marshall was later appointed to the supreme court in 1967 being the 1st black man. 

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954): a landmark Supreme Court case argued by Marshall. The Case addressed segregation in schools and the court unanimously decided that segregated schools were unconstitutional since they were in violation of the 14th Amendment. Brown overturned the “separate but equal” doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson of 1986. 

Central High School/Little Rock (1957): 9 black students tried to enroll at Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas after the Brown decisions. However, Governor Faubus tried to prohibit them by calling in the National Guard. The 9 students were tuanged and harassed by white mobs which was televised. Eisenhower sent 1000 federal troops to Little Rock and ordered the National Guard to protect the 9 students. This instance showed Eiesnehower’s support for African American rights. 

Emmett Till: a 14 year old African American who was murdered after speaking to a white woman at a grocery store in Mississippi. Till's violent death facts were publicized through a magazine, therefore garnering national attention. The two white men were arrested for murder, however, were not convicted by the all white jury. 

Rosa Parks: civil rights activist and NAACP member in Montgomery, Alabama. In 1955, Parks stood up against segregation by not giving up her seat for a white man. Parks was then arrested for violating segregation policy. Her actions helped inspire many growing movements. 

Martin Luther King Jr.: MLK was a pastor in Montgomery. He was an advocate for peace, nonviolent demonstrations as he learned from the teachings of Gandhi. MLK helped organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott and founded the SCLC. 

Montgomery Bus Boycott: inspired by Parks, the Bus Boycott was carried out by the African American women of Montgomery between 1955-1956 in protest against segregation. The boycott lasted 361 days, and in that time African Americans worked together to offset bus transport. In the end, busing companies were nearly out of business. 

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC): founded by MLK and black ministers in 1957 to manage/organize civil rights movements. The SCLC used the influence of black churches to promote civil rights. The SCLC sought to achieve racial equality through nonviolent protest but its goals later expanded to anti-poverty and antiwar debates. 

Greensboro Sit-ins: the original sit-in began in 1960 when four  black college students sat at a white only diner. The group said they would sit until they received service. During their time they faced extreme hatred. Sit-ins then began all over the south hoping to end segregation. 

Ella Baker/Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC): the creator of the SNCC group in the 1960s who supported the grass roots. Ella prioritized students and wanted to show how they could lead. 

Freedom Rides: organized in 1961 by CORE. Freedom rides road trains calling attention to court violations and include black and white activists. They protested the court's decision on segregation in interstate transportation. And the goal was to desegregate interstate transportation. 

“Letter from a Birmingham Jail”: after MLK was jailed for protesting in Birmingham he pasted together the “Letter from a Birmingham Jail”. He advocated for nonviolent action to achieve change. He appealed to the people through ideas of Christian brotherhood and democratic liberalism to argue for support against segregation and racism. He suggested taking action now instead of waiting around. 

Medgar Evers: Mississippi president of the NAACP. However, he was murdered by a white supremacist in June of 1963. This came just after Kenneday had gone on national television to denounce the racism occuring in Birmingham. Evers death incited greater civil rights actions. 

March on Washington (August 1963): revival of A. Philip Randolph March from 1941. It was under guidance of Randolph and Bayard Rstin, however, MLK was the face. The March was set to build support for Kennedy’s new civil rights bill. Thousands of black and whites gathered at Lincoln memorials to demand an end to Jim Crow. It also urged congress to create more job programs to help employ black americans. MLK's “I have a dream” speech greatly inspired and rallied the nations. 

Civil Rights Act of 1964: Southern democrats had blocked Kennedy’s civil rights bill and he was assassinated, leaving the presidency to Lyndon Johnson. Johnson got the bill passed in 1964. Title VII of the bill outlawed discrimination in employment based on race, religion, national origin, and sex. The Act also guaranteed equal access to schools and public institutions. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was created to enforce against job discrimination. This was the strongest civil rights bill since Reconstruction. 

Freedom Summer: four major civil rights organizations (CORE, NAACP, SCLC, and SNCC) led a movement in Miss. The organizations created freedom schools for black children and worked to register voters. Freedom Summer was met with fierce opposition and violence. The Mississippi Freedom Democratic party (MFDP) was formed to challenge democratic leaders and their racist policies, however, the group was not recognized.  

March from Selma: James Bevel of the SCLC launched the March from Selma (Alabama). The march was supposed to reach the state capital, Montgomery. However, the 600 marchers were brutally attacked with state troopers after they left Selma in what became known as Bloody Sunday. The March was unsuccessful, but laid the foundation for Johnson to improve civil rights. 

Voting Rights Act of 1965: was signed by Johnson and outlawed literacy tests since they were used to impede on the voting rights of African Americans. The Act also allowed for federal examiners to be sent to countries with registration for less than 50% to make sure that minorities were being allowed to vote. 

24th Amendment: ratified in 1964 and it outlawed the poll tax in federal elections. The poll taxes were also preventing African Americans from voting. The Amendment along with the Voting Rights Act helped millions of African Americans gain access to voting for the first time since Reconstruction. 

black nationalism (1960s/1970s): advocated for black racial pride and autonomy. However, it was widely ranging. Nationalist movements were inspired by historical figures such as Fedreick Douglas and Marcus Garvey but new organizations like the Nation of Islam and Black Panther Party were also supporters/influencers. 

Nation of Islam: leader of black nationalism in early 60s. A new American religion that connected islam with self-improvement and black separation. The Nation of Islam did not have many converts, but they gained popularity in northern cities. The group believed Allah would banish white devils and provide black nation justice. Prominent members included Malcom X. 

Malcolm X: black muslim who was a prominent leader of the black nationalism. He advocated for militant separation and was a member of the Nation of Islam. He emphasized black pride and self-improvement, moving away from MLK ideas of alliances with whites. He also believed in violence in self defense. However, he broke with the Nation of Islam in 1964 and sought to unite poor whites with blacks. He formed the Organization of Afro-American Unity to encourage black pride but he was assassinated in 1965. 

Stokely Carmichael/Black Power: leader of Black Power, a secular black nationalist movement. The movement centered on the belief of black self-reliance, stating that cooperation with whites was not necessary or desired. Instead, African Americans were encouraged to develop economic and political power in their own communities and become less dependent on whites. This mindset led black activists to address issues of poverty and social inequality. Racial pride thrived under black power, as many embarrassed traditional African culture. 

Black Panther Party (1966): radical nationalist group founded in California. The party was a militant organization that focused on protection against police brutality. The group was anti Vietnam war and supportive of Third World independence movements. The Panthers also sought to reform communities but they were radical and violent so often clashed with the police, and were investigated by the FBI.  They provide many aid organizations to black communities. 

United Farm Workers/Chavez and Huerta: Mexican American civil rights advocates who founded the United Farm Workers (UFW). The UFW was a union of migrant farmworkers fighting for better labor conditions. The UFW initiated a boycott of grapes and a hunger strike in order to improve conditions. In 1970 they finally gained recognition from California grape growers and previously were promoted by Kennedy. 

American Indian Movement (1986): founded under the idea of Red Power. Members of the AIM protested to bring attention to problems faced by urban Indians, such as discrimination, poverty, and police brutality. The AIM united Indians to protest forced relocation and to gain more autonomy over culture, land, and communities. The organization was led by younger activists who rejected their elders' assimilation approach. They gained significant media and government attention, but little success. 

Wounded Knee 1973: a siege at Wounded Knee, the site of the past massacre. AIM occupied buildings that had FBI agents. The Siege lasted more than two months and the siege eventually ended after negotiations with federal authorities. The siege of Wounded Knee brought media coverage and government action regarding tribal issues. 

27: Uncivil Wars: Liberal Crisis and Conservative Rebirth (1961-1972)

Great Society: Johnson’s social reform programs focused on civil rights, antipoverty, education, and medical care. Johnson also hoped to improve the housing crisis and increase environmental conservation efforts. The Great Society represented America’s liberal values during the time, similarly to FDR's new deal. While the Great Society was successful in reducing the amount of Americans living in poverty, it didn’t end poverty or inequality. 

Economic Opportunity Act (1964)/War on Poverty: Johnson's anti-poverty legislation which launched his War on Poverty. It created many services like Head Start for education of preschoolers, the Job Corps and Upward Bound to help young Americans find employment, and the Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA). These programs were intended to alleviate poverty, help the poor, and foster more economic growth. 

Medicare/Medicaid (1965): Johnson's health care programs as part of his social welfare legislation. Medicare was meant to assist funding for medical expenses for the elderly (over 65), and it was funded by Social Security taxes (expensive). Medicaid was health care for the poor and funded by general tax revenues (more expensive). These plans helped millions of Americans and still exist today. 

Equal Pay Act (1963): passed by the work of the labor feminist who belonged to trade unions. These women sought equality in the labor systems and pushed for creation of an Equal Pay Act. The Equal Pay Act established pay for equal work, ending the wage gap between males and females. Therefore, the Equal Pay Act protected women from discrimination based on sex. 

The Feminine Mystique (1963): a book written by Betty Friedan. The book targeted educated, middle-class women who were limited by the social expectations that confined women to domestic life. Friedan criticizes the assumption that women should feel fulfilled from housework/marriage/motherhood, and encourages women to seek education and work outside the home to reach their full potential. 

National Organization for Women (NOW) (1966): civil rights organization, modeled after the NAACP, for women that was founded by Betty Friedan and other labor feminist. The goal of NOW was equal rights for women and they fought against discrimination in all spheres. One of the main goals was to bring women into full participation into society. NOW held strikes and marches to spread the movement and gain support. In the 1970s, NOW ideas addressed more radical changes. 

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964): after alleged fire from Northern Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin, Johnson issued the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which Congress approved. The Resolution gave Johnson unrestricted power in conducting operations in Vietnam. The Resolution justified Johnson's decision to start open warfare against North Vietnam. The Senate ended the resolution in 1970 after the US invasion of Cambodia. 

Operation Rolling Thunder (1965): three year bombing campaign against North Vietnam ordered by Johnson. The operation was intended to destroy morale and the region of the North Vietnamese forces. However, the North Vietnamese were quick to rebuild and recover from the bombings. The operation demonstrated that there was no end in sight for the war. 

“credibility gap”: people's skepticism about the Johnson administration regarding the war. Information produced by the government suggested that America was winning the war. However, an American journalist, who had first hand information, believed that the Johnson administration was not being truthful about the circumstances of the Vietnam War. The credibility gap spread to the public through television and anti war and government sentiments grew. (First major US war that was documented → changed everything). 

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) (1960)/Port Huron Statement/Hayden: an organization founded by college students in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The SDS was a social change organization that took inspiration from civil rights movements. The Port Huron Statement was written by Tom Hayden and the SDS’s manifesto from its first national convention in Port Huron. The Statement explained the student’ discontent with American consumer culture, wealth gap, Vietnam War, and other Cold War policies. 

New Left/Free Speech Movement: radical students in the 60s and 70s who were distinct from the Old Left communist and socialist. The New Left focused on cultural issues instead of the economy/labor unions. The Free Speech Movement was organized by students in 1964 after the University of California at Berkeley banned student political activity on universal grounds. The student protested with a sit-in at the administration building. The movement across universities across the country. 

Young Americans for Freedom/Sharon Statement: an organization of conservative students. They supported free enterprise, the war, and limited government assistance. YAF created the Sharon Statement as the group's manifesto and inspired many young conservatives. 

Tet Offensive (1968): a North Vietnamese + Vietcong attack on South Vietnam. The Vietcong attacked major cities, shing US weakness. Overall, the offensive was not entirely successful, but it marks a turning point in the war. To America, the Tet Offensive revealed the growing credibility gap, as everything was televised. Johnson lost a lot of credibility and the Offensive caused him to avoid reelection. 

1968 Democratic Convention and Election: the 1968 convention occurred in Chicago and was meant for the Democrats to nominate a candidate and finalize a platform to run on. However, antiwar protests gather outside of the convention hall. Protesters attacked police and vice versa as cause mounted. Violence was televised and broadcast through the nations and across the group. This event tarnished the Democratic image, as the party was viewed as a mess. The Convention ended with Huberg Humphrey (LBJ VP) as the nominee. 

Chicano Moratorium Committee: a group created by Latinos to protest their involvement in the Vietnam War. Chicano activists were Mexican Americans and they believed that war was unjust to the poor who could not afford to avoid the draft. They also viewed war as a violation of civil rights towards POC. Chavez was the leader. 

women’s liberation: a new form of feminism that developed in the late 1960s and was viewed as more radical. The group took inspo from the Black Power movement and was led by young, college educated women who faced discrimination from other civil rights groups (New Left). The movement grew  in large cities and college towns. They had the goal to gain equality and end male exploitation of women. 

Title IX (1972): As women continued to increase their participation in education, Title IX was adopted in expansion of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Discrimination was now prohibited in education institutions, meaning women could not be barred from attending colleges/universities that were federally funded. This led to increased funding of women’s sports programs, making women’s athletics more prominent on college campuses. 

Stonewall Inn: when the NYPD raided a gay bar named Stonewall Inn. These raids were not rare, however, Stonewall sparked the gay liberation movement. Gay activists were inspired by other civil rights and women’s rights movements at the time. Violence at Stonewall led to violent two-day riots. The National Gay task force then began to lobby congress in hopes to achieve consensual sex laws. Change was slow and sparse. 

silent majority: a term used by Nixon in his 1969 speech to describe his supporters. The silent majority did not loudly express their opinions publicly, unlike civil rights activists or members of the New Left. Nixon believed this group represented a majority of the population. 

Vietnamization (1970s): Nixon’s policy towards the Vietnam War. He sought to address the people's anti-war sentiments and achieve peace, but without completely abandoning Vietnam since he believed that would hurt American credibility. Therefore, he began transferring ground fighting American troops to South Vietnam. However, this policy did not end the war. 

Kent State (1970): After the US invasion of Cambodia, students were outraged and mounted an anti-war protest. One of the largest rallies was held at Kent State University in Ohio. Protest became violent, marking the first time students died at a college protest. National Guardsmen fired upon a crowd, wounding 11 students and killing 4. 

My Lai: in a South Vietnamese village, the US Army executed almost 500 people, including mostly women and children. However, only one soldier, William Calley, was convicted of the massacre. American military journalist Seymour Hersh publicized the crimes in 1969. Which sparked protest from Vietnam veterans against the atrocities committed. 

Détente: Nixon’s goal for “peace with honor”. Detente called for a decrease in tensions between the US and USSR. Nixon also wanted greater openness with China. Arms began to be regulated to prevent fear of nuclear war and trade between the nations increased. Nixon met with Brezhnev to talk about how to reduce tensions. 

SALT I: Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty signed by Nixon and Brezhneve during meetings in 1970 and 1972. The agreement called for an end to the arms race of ballistic missiles by limiting the number of nuclear weapons each nation had. This marked the beginning of Nixon's detente plan. 

Warren Court (1954-1969): referred to the SCOTUS under Chief Justice Warren. The court supported civil rights, liberation decisions, criminal rights, reproductive freedom, and separation of church and state. All of which saw federal actions. The court was opposed by right-wing conservatives who often believed the court was overstepping boundaries.The court created the most fareaching liberal orders during its time. 

Milliken v. Bradley: a SCOTUS case dealing with the issue of desegregation of buses among school districts in Detroit. In order to fully desegregate Detroit schools, busing would have to cross different school districts. This case ruled that busing plans had to stay within a single school district. This ruling made it impossible for Detroid and other cities to integrate schools. At the time, due to growth of suburbs, many schools were “naturally” segregated based on high white populations living in suburbs. 

Chapter 28: The Search for Order in an Era of Limits (1973-1980)

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): France, Britain, and America began extracting oil under profit-sharing agreements with the Persian Gulf states. This lead to the formation of OPEC in 1960. The OPEC was a cartel of the Persian Gulf states and other oil-rich countries and it was intended to manage the prices of oil. OPEC also controlled the amount of oil produced and sold (cost) by cartel members. 

Energy Crisis (1973): OPEC was forced to take sides when conflict occurred between Israel and the Arab states. The US supported Israel in the conflict, so OPEC declared an oil embargo in the US. The embargo led to an oil shortage in the US and oil prices increased. Congress imposed national speed limits to help save resources. Many Americans also began to switch to more fuel-efficient cars that were not American brands. The crisis also created inflation of basic necessities. The energy crisis brought attention to US dependency on Middle Eastern Oil. 

Environmentalism: a movement that was revived in the 1960s after the energy crisis brought attention to the finite nature of earth’s resources. The environmental movement was based on previous environmental protection movements and sentiments, similar to conservation and preservation. The movement sought to conserve natural resources, limit pollution, stricter regulations, and increase environmental consciousness. Public notions led to numerous policy changes, including Creation of the EPA, env. Protection acts, and creation of Earth Day. 

Silent Spring: a book published in 1962 by biologist Rachel Carson. She brought attention to pesticide use and its negative effects on the environment. Carson asserted that pesticides would enter the food chain, therefore, harm humans and the environment. Many criticized Carson and her work, however, the government conducted a study to verify Carson findings. When her work was verified, use of pesticides agriculture. 

Earth Day: the environmentalist movement led Senator Gaylord Nelson to create the first Earth Day on April 22, 1970. 20 million people gathered to support the protection of the earth and the day brought environmental issues to national attention, successfully leading to political reactions. Earth Day has since been an annual event. 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Congress and Nixon passed the National Environmental Policy Act in 1970 with bipartisan support. The Act required developers to document their impact on the environment in official statements. The Act also created the EPA to enforce environmental laws, research, and control pollution/health risks. Other Acts passed to protect the environment included: Clean Air Act, Occupational Health and Safety Act, Water Pollution Control Act, and Endangered Species Act.

Stagflation: a term used in the 70s to describe increased unemployment, stagnant consumer demand, and inflation. While it was thought prices would rise if the economy was stagnant, inflation still occurred due to the energy crisis. The public has less spending power and average lower incomes. Nixon, Ford, and Carter all attempted to curb stagflation, but they were unsuccessful. Nixon took a more radical approach in creating a New Economic Policy which created price and wage controls, and once again took the US off the gold standard. 

Deindustrialization: the dismantling of US manufacturing and industry in the 70s and 80s. This caused an increase in overseas competition in various industries like automobiles, steel, and consumer goods. Industrialization transformed the economy and meant the US no longer dominated global industry. America laws a large reduction in jobs and power in labor movements. US markets began to be flooded with foreign goods from growing industries (Germany/Japan). 

Rust Belt: deindustrialization led to decline of heavily industrialized regions of the nation, specifically the Northeast and Midwest. The decline led to a Rust Belt with abandoned plants and distressed communities. The Rust Belt caused greater migration to the sunbelt and its overall development. The Sunbelt economy continued to flourish with defense spending. 

Watergate (1972): Nixon’s scandal while president. Men were found wearing wiretapping equipment at the Democratic National Convention. The men were affiliated with Nixon’s Committee to Re-elect the President (CREEP). Nixon denied involvement, however, he arranged hush money payments to the so called “burglars”. He also instructed the CIA to stop FBI investigations. However, people started to speak and the incident began to be investigated and delevised. Nixon feared Senate impeachment and Nixon resigned as president on August 9, 2024. 

War Powers Act (1973): an act passed after Watergate in order to limit the power of the president and prevent abuses of power. The Act regulated the president’s ability to deploy US forces without approval from Congress. It was mandated that the president contact Congress within 48 hours prior to military action. The Act aimed to maintain “checks and balances” by dividing war power between the president and Congress. 

Freedom of Information Act (1974): an Act passed after Watergate. Congress passed the act to give citizens access to federal records and make citizens aware of government actions. Public authorities published the information about activists and allowed the public to request information. 

Deregulation: to combat stagnation, Carter began the process of deregulation in the 1970s. The era meant limited regulation of federal agencies and more free-market mindsets. There was regulation of airline, trucking, and railroad industries. Deregulation also increased competition and reduced prices, which hurt businesses and union workers. Reagan later expanded deregulation by limiting government protections of consumers, workers, and the environment. 

Bakke v. University of California (1978): to create greater racial and gender representation in numerous institutions, the policy of affirmative action was created to ensure the admission and hiring of minorities. However, in 1978, Allan Bakke challenged affirmative action after not being admitted into dentist med-school. He believed that he was passed up for a “less-fit” black man. He sued the University of California at Davis medical School and it reached the supreme court. The Supreme Court ruled against the use of quotas for affirmative action but still allowed affirmative action itself, with the consideration of race along with other characteristics. 

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): women's liberation movement fought for passage of ERA which was originally creed in 1923 by Alice Paul. The ERA would ensure that men and women were treated equally under federal and state lat. In 1972 Congress adopted the ERA and 34 of 38 needed states ratified it within two years, However, despite extensive lobbying in states, women's rights advocates were not able to gain ratification of the Act. ERA was never ratified since not enough states ratified it before the deadline. 

Phyllis Schlafly/STOP ERA: a conservative lawyer who founded the STOP ERA organization in 1972. She opposed the ERA since she thought it would create a unisex society as women would be drafted into war and abortion rights would be extended. STOP ERA spread their message to many allies and were supported by the New Right and Republicans. They were successful in efforts to stop the ERA. 

Roe v. Wade (1973): a Supreme Court case regarding the right to abortion. In Roe v. Wade, the Court ruled against a Texas law banning abortions, which set precedent that abortion was a right to be protected under the Constitution under the right to privacy. Abortions were now allowed in the third trimester. Religious and conservative Americans still opposed this ruling, and arguments continued to this day. 

Harvey Milk: a camera shop owner who decided to enter policies in 1972. He tried to run smaller political rules before, but failed. However, in 1977 he became the first openly gay man to be elected into public office. Milk was able to support passage of a gay rights ordinance, but he was assassinated in 1978. His assassinations outraged many San Francisco. 

Evangelicalism: a movement in Protestant Christianity which grew during the 60s and 80s. Evangilicalism was based on personal salvation, a literal interpretation of the bible, and repenting. It appealed to lower class americans. Growing liberalism pushed many to find order in evangelical churches. TV, books, and seminars helped spread the christian message. Evangelicalist believed in traditional family structures and attempted to stop immorality in society.