A Gentlemen's Agreement - Notes

A Gentlemen's Agreement - Karen Tei Yamashita

Karen Tei Yamashita, born in 1951 in Oakland, California, is a novelist, short story writer, and playwright who spent nine years researching the Japanese community in Brazil. Her works include "Through the Arc of the Rain Forest," "Brazil-Maru," "Tropic of Orange," and "Circle K Cycles."

Introduction

"A Gentlemen’s Agreement" is part of a collaborative work with cultural critic Lucio Kubo, exploring their grandparents' experiences through photographs and memories. The authors reflect on the past, acknowledging the limitations of understanding it fully. They imagine the influence of their grandparents' generation, considering themes of respect, guidance, condemnation, and destiny.

Historical Context: Immigration and Treaties

In 1908, the Gentlemen's Agreement between the U.S. and Japan restricted Japanese immigrant labor to the United States. Concurrently, the first group of approximately 800 Japanese immigrants arrived in Santos, Brazil, to work on coffee plantations in São Paulo. As the U.S. implemented Exclusion Acts in the 1920s, Japanese immigration to the U.S. decreased, while immigration to Brazil increased. The U.S. housed Japanese immigrants from the Meiji Era (1868-1911), while Brazil attracted immigrants from the Taisho (1912-1925) and Showa (1926-1989) eras.

Japan's National Self-Perception

The national self-perception of Japan and its relationship with the West influenced how each era of emigrants approached leaving home. While Meiji Japanese in the U.S. demonstrated respectful endurance, Taisho and Showa immigrants in Brazil aggressively constructed insular colonies, showed disdain for the Brazilian peasantry, and displayed strong Japanese nationalism.

Personal Encounters and Reflections

In 1975, Yamashita met Lucio Kubo in São Paulo. Kubo, a philosophy graduate, impressed her with his knowledge of classical Japanese, French poets, American jazz, and his intellectual and witty nature. Raised by his grandmother, he had a formal Japanese education, earning him the nickname "Shogun."

The Four Women: Meiji-Era Immigrants

The text highlights four Meiji-born women who were born within a decade of each other. Two originated from cultural centers like Tokyo and Kyoto, while the other two came from smaller cities in Aichi and Nagano. These women experienced Japan's transition from a peasant to an industrial society, a period marked by both dramatic progress and devastation. This transition served as an implied blessing to leave Japan, explore the world, seek fortune, and alleviate the burdens of poverty. Two of these women would settle in the U.S. before the Gentlemen’s Agreement, and two would settle in Brazil between the worldwide depression and World War II. However, none of them initially planned to leave Japan; their journeys were influenced by external forces and agreements.

Generational Identity

Yamashita contrasts her experiences as a sansei (third-generation Japanese American) with the nisei (second-generation Japanese Brazilian) community in Brazil. She found that the nisei focused on integration and professional success within Brazilian society, a stark contrast to her own identity and experiences. She felt like she had stepped into a time machine, encountering her parents' generation in their youth. Being "American" carried a certain weight and expectation.

Tomi Murakami Yamashita

Tomi Murakami Yamashita, the author's paternal grandmother, is depicted as a proud, extravagant, and daring woman. A photograph of her in Western attire was displayed in Oakland around 1901. Tomi came from a family of swordsmiths and samurai in Tokyo and converted to Christianity. She married Kishiro Yamashita, a tailor, and established Yokohama Tailor in Oakland. Tomi patented an abdominal support for pregnant women and later opened Mayfair Cleaners. She supported her family through the Depression until their forced relocation to a concentration camp in Topaz, Utah, in 1942. Tomi's long life and strong personality led her family to view her as a matriarch.

Lucio's Perspective on Asian American Identity

Lucio questioned the concept of Asian American identity after watching Wakako Yamauchi’s play, "And the Soul Shall Dance." He found the use of English by actors in Japanese roles artificial. He emphasized that in Brazil, class and hunger were more significant issues than race.

Mika Morishita Akagawa

Mika Morishita Akagawa, Lucio Kubo's maternal grandmother, was the eldest daughter of a wealthy family in Toyohashi, Aichi. She received an eight-year education and married Hidetake through a formal arrangement called miai. Hidetake worked in Manchuria for 18 years. After returning to Japan, financial losses led the Akagawas to immigrate to Brazil in 1933 to avoid their sons being sent to war with China. The family bought land in Tietê, clearing the forest to plant crops. Eventually, they moved to São Paulo City and during the war years had little contact with others due to restrictions on the Japanese language. Mika's life was centered around her family and home, and she remained discreet and reserved. A photograph taken in São Paulo captures her slightly severe demeanor, reflecting her life's journey through multiple countries and significant historical events.

Tei Imai Sakai

Tei Imai Sakai, the author's maternal grandmother, was the daughter of a fish merchant in Matsumoto, Nagano. She married Kitaichi and traveled to America alone after he had been working in San Francisco for seven years following the 1906 earthquake. They opened the Uoki Fish Market in Japantown, San Francisco. Tei became the backbone of her family, raising nine children in the rooms above the store. She remained in Japantown, a central figure known for her simplicity, honesty, humanity, humor, and wisdom. She spoke little English and was a Zen Buddhist. She was considered a peaceful and flawless woman.

Kazue Kato Kubo

Kazue Kato Kubo, Lucio’s paternal grandmother, had been married and separated in Japan. She met Tetsu Kubo, a Christian theology scholar who had studied at Princeton, a widower with four children. In 1929, after the Japanese Exclusion Acts, the family immigrated to Brazil as contract laborers. One immigration requirement was that families include a husband, wife, and at least one child of laboring age (14 or older). While Tetsu made the decision to immigrate to Brazil, the physical labor and responsibilities fell to Kazue. She tilled the land, planted the garden, established a poultry ranch, and sold eggs and produce in the city. Kazue, a dynamic woman, made Tetsu’s dream a reality.

Reflections on Photographs and Memories

The photographs of the ancestors evoke memories and stories. The author reflects on the connections between generations, acknowledging the limitations of knowing the complete stories of their grandparents. Lucio's interest in palm reading is mentioned as a possible means of understanding the future.

The Significance of Women in Immigration

By 1941, approximately 190,000 Japanese had immigrated to Brazil. Today, Japanese immigrants and their descendants number over 1.5 million, forming the largest population outside of Japan. The presence of women was crucial for providing stability, creating families, and establishing homes. While men may have seen themselves as migrant laborers, women were the true immigrants, adapting to new lives while maintaining traditional relationships. Women achieved a degree of freedom and equality, focusing on practical responsibilities such as children, household, meals, garden, and work. Unlike men, women did not have to succeed but simply had to work. Men were responsible for the economic and sometimes political, sometimes spiritual, vision for their families but these visions often became muddled. Women, on the other hand, adapted to the visions of men in subtle and supple ways, made the thing stick.

Concluding Thoughts

The author and Lucio represent different perspectives, with Yamashita speaking an Anglo language and living in the First World, while Lucio speaks a Latin language and lives in the Third World. Despite these differences, they share a connection through their grandparents' experiences and their reflections on identity, immigration, and the role of women.