Aggression: Definitions and Influences

White-majority officials referred to the COVID-19 virus as the "Chinese" or "China virus."
Association of the virus with a specific country led to increased prejudice and discrimination.
During one week, there were 650 reported incidents of discrimination against Asian Americans due to this association (Hong, 2020; Van Bavel et al., 2020).
- Incidents included physical assaults, verbal abuse, and derogatory remarks such as "You people brought the virus. Go back to China" (Loffman, 2020).

Two forms of evidence support the scapegoat theory:
1. Social Trends: Economic frustrations lead to heightened prejudice during economic downturns.
- Reference: Bianchi et al., 2018.
1. Experiments: Temporary frustrations increase prejudice.
- Example: Students who experience failure may disparage others to restore self-esteem (Cialdini & Richardson, 1980; Crocker et al., 1987).
The phenomenon known as Schadenfreude arises from the pleasure taken in others' misfortunes.
- The German term describes this secret joy (Cognitive Shortcuts).
Contrast: Those who feel loved tend to become more accepting of others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2001).

Stereotyping arises from cognitive simplifications where we form categories to understand our surroundings.
Examples of categorization include:
- Chemists categorize molecules.
- Therapists categorize psychological disorders.
- Social categorization includes grouping by gender, ethnicity, and race, as well as perceived warmth and competence (Fiske, 2018).
Outgroup Homogeneity: The phenomenon where we overestimate the similarities within other groups and differences within our own.
- Evidence: The other-race effect emerges in infancy, indicating better recognition of own-race faces (Anzures et al., 2013; Telzer et al., 2013).
A learned-association effect is identified when normative racial categories are violated, where observers focus on distinctive features of less-familiar minorities (Halberstadt et al., 2011).

Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that simplify complex decision-making.
- Availability heuristic: The tendency to judge the frequency of an event based on how easily it comes to mind (vs. actual frequency).
Vivid cases lead to overestimation of certain stereotypes as demonstrated in an experiment comparing perceptions of nonviolent vs. violent offenders (Rothbart et al., 1978).

Individuals often justify prejudice through victim blaming, believing if the world is just, people receive what they deserve.
Example: Reflections of a German civilian visiting Bergen-Belsen concentration camp post-WWII, stating "What terrible criminals these prisoners must have been" highlights this bias.
Hindsight Bias: Enhances victim blaming, where individuals might state victims should have acted differently post-factum (Carli & Leonard, 1989).
Specific cases where victims, like rape survivors, are blamed are noted in some cultural contexts (Mydans, 2002).
System Justification: The tendency to rationalize or justify the status quo and social hierarchies, complicating implementation of social change (Jost, 2019).

Addressing negative feelings towards others is crucial; active monitoring of prejudicial sentiments can lead to positive behavioral changes.
This includes replacing old habits, fostering new friendships, and enhancing overall societal sensitivity to prejudice.

Differentiate psychological definitions of aggression from everyday definitions; aggression in psychology involves behavior intended to harm, either hostile or strategic.
- Non-aggressive assertive behavior is distinguished from aggressive behavior.

Aggression arises from a complex interplay of biological and environmental influences:
- Genetic predispositions (twin studies show inherited tendencies).
- Neural mechanisms: Increased aggressiveness linked to brain injuries, activity in specific brain regions, and frontal lobe damage (Amen et al., 1996; Davidson et al., 2000).
- Biochemical factors:
  - Testosterone: Linked to higher aggression in men (Kivisto et al., 2019).
  - Alcohol: Known as a disinhibitor, it increases reactive aggression, linked to significant percentages of violent incidents (White et al., 1993).

Aversive Events: Conditions like high temperatures or physical discomfort can enhance aggressive behavior.
- Frustration-Aggression Principle exemplified by increased aggressiveness during MLB incidents associated with prior pitcher events (Timmerman, 2007).
Cultural influences: Different backgrounds, such as northern vs. southern U.S. contexts, shape responses to aggression (Nisbett & Cohen, 1996).

Media Exposure: Violence in television, films, and video games serves as a model for real-life aggression (Anderson et al., 2017).
- Repeated exposure to violence has been linked to increased acceptance of aggression.
- Sexual violence: Content in pornography can desensitize viewers to sexual aggression (Surgeon General, 1986).

Aggression results from a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences.
It is a biopsychosocial phenomenon where multiple factors contribute, emphasizing the multi-faceted nature of understanding and potentially mitigating aggression.