Consciousness, Variations in Consciousness, and Sleep

5.1 On the Nature of Consciousness

  • What is Consciousness?

    • Consciousness is defined as the awareness of internal and external stimuli, which includes:

    1. Awareness of external events: For example, responding to a question in class.

    2. Awareness of internal sensations: Recognizing physical states, such as anxiety and bodily reactions (e.g., heart racing).

    3. Awareness of self: Reflecting on one's unique experiences (e.g., questioning personal identity).

    4. Awareness of thoughts about experiences: Engaging in meta-cognition and self-talk regarding one’s experiences (e.g., fears of embarrassment).

    • Overall, consciousness is about personal awareness across diverse domains.

  • Key Learning Goal: Understand the nature of consciousness and how it relates to brain activity.

5.1.1 Variations in Levels of Awareness

  • William James' Contribution: He introduced the concept of the "stream of consciousness," emphasizing that consciousness is a continuous flow of thoughts and awareness.

  • Research on Mind Wandering:

    • One study analyzed feedback from 2250 adults regarding mind wandering, revealing that nearly 50% reported their minds strayed from tasks frequently (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010).

    • Its prevalence is heightened when individuals are bored, anxious, tired, or stressed (Kane et al., 2007).

    • Although mind wandering can enhance creativity (Pachai et al., 2016), it can hinder effective learning (Sanders et al., 2017).

    • Increased accessibility of social media and multitasking is linked to higher incidents of mind wandering (Hollis & Was, 2016; Loh et al., 2016).

  • Metaphorical Frameworks:

    • Blackmore's Theatre of the Mind: Compares the mind to a theater where the audience experiences sounds, smells, and emotions, emphasizing subjective mental experiences.

5.1.2 Consciousness and Brain Activity


  • Complexity of Consciousness: Consciousness arises from distributed neural network activities rather than from a specific brain structure (Singer, 2007).


  • Brain Imaging and EEG: The Electroencephalograph (EEG) has historically been used to monitor brain activity related to consciousness states, measuring electrical activity in the cortex.


  • EEG Patterns: Unity in brain-wave activity is categorized by frequency:

    • Beta waves: (13-24 cps) associated with alert problem-solving.

    • Alpha waves: (8-12 cps) linked with relaxation and calmness.

    • Theta waves: (4-7 cps) indicative of light sleep.

    • Delta waves: (under 4 cps) dominant during deep, dreamless sleep.


  • Table 5.1: EEG Patterns Associated with Consciousness:

    State of Consciousness

    EEG Pattern

    Frequency (cps)


    Normal waking thought

    Beta (β)

    13-24


    Deep relaxation, meditation

    Alpha (α)

    8-12


    Light sleep

    Theta (θ)

    4-7


    Deep sleep

    Delta (δ)

    < 4

    • Correlations vs. Causation: It remains difficult to determine if changes in brain-wave activity cause alterations in consciousness or vice versa.

    5.2 Biological Rhythms and Sleep

    • Biological Rhythms: Regular fluctuations in physiological functioning, influenced by external environmental rhythms such as light-dark cycles and seasons (Kriegsfeld & Nelson, 2009).

    5.2.1 Role of Circadian Rhythms

    • Circadian Rhythms: 24-hour biological cycles that influence sleep, blood pressure, hormonal secretion, and cognitive performance (Czeisler & Buxton, 2017).

    • Physiological Indicators: Body temperature drops as individuals prepare for sleep and rises to signal waking (Czeisler & Buxton, 2017).

    • Light's Role in Circadian Control: The retina's light-responsive cells notify the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus to regulate sleeping patterns (Rosenwasser & Turek, 2017).

    5.2.2 Ignoring Circadian Rhythms

    • Effects of Circadian Disruption: Poor sleep quality and jet lag can occur when biological clocks are misaligned; jet lag particularly affects performance in professional sports (Recht, Lew, & Schwartz, 1995).

    • Adjustment of Circadian Clocks: Adjusting to time zone transitions is generally easier when flying westward compared to flying eastward (Sletten & Arendt, 2012).

    • Typical Recovery Rates: One day per time zone crossing eastward, two-thirds of a day per time zone crossing westward (Monk, 2006).

    • Social Jet Lag: Distinction between sleep times on week and weekend can lead to chronic issues such as obesity and cardiovascular symptoms (Roenneberg et al., 2012).

    5.2.3 Realigning Circadian Rhythms

    • Melatonin: Hormone that helps resynchronize biological clocks and mitigate jet lag, although proper timing is crucial (Srinivasan et al., 2014).

    • Work Schedules: Development of shift work systems requiring flexible scheduling helps workers mitigate negative circadian impacts (Drake & Wright, 2017).

    5.3 Sleep and Waking Cycle

    5.3.1 Cycling Through Stages of Sleep

    • Sleep Architecture: Studies reveal that sleep consists of multiple stages, cycling through roughly four stages of non-REM and REM sleep throughout a typical night (Carskadon & Dement, 2017).

    • Average Time to Fall Asleep: Approximately 25 minutes based on over 35,000 participants across multiple countries (Soldatos et al., 2005).

    • Stage Transitions:

      • Stage N1: Light sleep, brief transitional phase, around 10-12 minutes.

      • Stage N2: Longer light sleep lasting around 10-25 minutes.

      • Stage N3: Deep sleep; characterized by delta wave activity, usually taking less than an hour to reach and lasting 20-40 minutes.

      • Next Cycle: Involves reversal through lighter stages before entering REM sleep.

    • REM Sleep Characteristics: Marked by rapid eye movements, a high frequency of beta wave activity, and increased likelihood of dreaming (Morrison, 2003).

    5.3.2 Age, Culture, and Sleep


    • Sleep Needs by Age: Guidelines for recommended sleep duration across different age groups, with significant variations, particularly for newborns and older adults (

      Age Group

      Recommended Sleep (hours)


      Newborn (0-3 months)

      14-17


      Infants (4-11 months)

      12-15


      Toddlers (1-2 years)

      11-14


      Preschoolers (3-5 years)

      10-13


      School-age (6-13 years)

      9-11


      Teens (14-17 years)

      8-10


      Young adults (18-25 years)

      7-9


      Adults (26-64 years)

      7-9


      Older adults (65+)

      7-8


      Source: Businesstech, 2019.

      • Cultural Sleep Practices: Different perceptions about sleep can lead to variations in sleep patterns; includes generational shifts and societal influences.

      5.3.3 Sleep Disorders

      • Insomnia: Most common sleep disorder, presenting as difficulties in:

        • Falling asleep initially

        • Remaining asleep

        • Early morning awakenings

        • Linked to increased risk of other health issues (Kucharczyk et al., 2012; Ong et al., 2017).

      • Other Disorders:

        • Narcolepsy: Sudden and uncontrollable bouts of sleep occurring at inappropriate times.

        • Sleep Apnea: Frequent interruptions in breathing during sleep, significantly impacting overall health.

        • Somnambulism: Sleepwalking typically occurring in childhood, often running in families.

        • REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD): Actions taken during REM dreams often leading to injuries, prevalent in older adults.

      5.4 The World of Dreams

      • Dream Content: Majority of dreams reflect common themes, predominantly centered around personal issues while sometimes incorporating past experiences (Hall, 1966; Zadra & Domhoff, 2017).

      • Cultural Perspectives on Dreaming: Varies widely, with some cultures placing more importance on dreams than in Western societies.

      • Theories of Dreaming: Multiple theories exist:

        • Freudian Theory: Dreams as wish fulfillment; symbolically addressing unmet needs.

        • Cartwright’s Problem-Solving View: Dreams facilitate the processing of problems and emotional issues.

        • Activation-Synthesis Model: Suggests dreams arise from the brain's electrical activity during sleep, where the mind composes coherent narratives from random signals.

      5.5 Hypnosis: Altered Consciousness or Role-Playing?

      • Historical Context: Originating from mesmeric practices, the field now offers clinical applications (Green et al., 2014) and interest in hypnobirthing.

      • Hypnotic Induction: Different techniques aim to bring a subject into a heightened suggestive state, impacting behavior and perceptions.

      • Theories of Hypnosis: Contemplated as both an altered state of consciousness and role-playing by suggestible individuals.

        • Hilgard’s Theory: Proposes dissociation during hypnosis, leading to divided streams of consciousness.

      5.6 Meditation: Seeking Higher Consciousness

      • Meditation Techniques: Focused attention and open monitoring practices that lead to profound awareness enhancements and emotional regulation.

      • Research Findings: Suggest benefits of meditation include stress reduction, cognitive enhancements, and improved mental health outcomes.

      5.7 Altering Consciousness with Drugs

      • Psychoactive Drugs: Substances changing psychological functioning categorized into six groups: narcotics, sedatives, stimulants, hallucinogens, cannabis, and alcohol.

      • Health Implications: Various drugs carry distinct health risks, including the potential for dependency and adverse effects on mental and physical well-being.

      • Cultural Context: Notable drug use patterns within South Africa reflecting socioeconomic, legal, and public health trends.