US Honors Final SM1 Study Guide

Plessy v. Ferguson

A landmark 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal." This ruling legalized segregation for decades, primarily impacting African Americans.

Literacy tests, poll taxes, and the grandfather clause kept Black Americans from voting

Following Reconstruction, Southern states implemented various discriminatory practices to disenfranchise African Americans:

  • Literacy Tests:

    • Required voters to demonstrate reading and comprehension skills, often arbitrarily administered to fail Black voters.

  • Poll Taxes:

    • Required citizens to pay a fee to vote, effectively preventing many poor Black Americans and some poor whites from participating.

  • Grandfather Clause:

    • Exempted individuals from literacy tests or poll taxes if their ancestors had been eligible to vote before 1866 or 1870, effectively allowing poor white voters to vote while still disenfranchising Black voters.

Industrial Revolution

  • Carnegie

    • Andrew Carnegie: An American industrialist who led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century. He used vertical integration to control all aspects of steel production, from raw materials to transportation. Later became a philanthropist, advocating for the "Gospel of Wealth."

  • Rockefeller

    • John D. Rockefeller: Founder of the Standard Oil Company, which dominated the oil industry and was the first great U.S. business trust. He employed horizontal integration to buy out competing oil refineries.

  • Knights of Labor

    • One of the largest and most important American labor organizations of the 19th century, founded in 1869. Advocated for a broad range of social and economic reforms, including an eight-hour workday, equal pay for equal work, and the abolition of child labor. Included skilled and unskilled workers, as well as women and African Americans.

  • AFL (American Federation of Labor)

    • Founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, it was a federation of craft unions (skilled workers). Focused on more practical goals like higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions through collective bargaining. Generally excluded unskilled workers, women, and minorities.

  • Chinese Exclusion Act

    • Signed into law in 1882, this federal law prohibited all immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years and was later extended, making it the first law implemented to prevent all members of a specific ethnic or national group from immigrating to the United States.

  • Political Machines

    • Informal political organizations, often led by a "boss," that controlled local government in many American cities during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They provided jobs and services to immigrants and the poor in exchange for votes, often engaging in corruption, patronage, and graft.

Populist Party

  • Also known as the People's Party, it was formed in the late 19th century (1890s) by farmers' alliances and other reform groups.

  • Advocated for policies to address the economic hardships of farmers and common laborers.

  • Key platforms included:

    • Bimetallism: Advocated for the free coinage of silver (in addition to gold) to increase the money supply and raise farm prices.

    • Government ownership: Called for government ownership of railroads and telegraphs to curb corporate power.

    • Progressive taxation: Supported a graduated income tax.

    • Electoral reforms: Pushed for direct election of U.S. Senators and the secret ballot.

    • Worker's rights: Supported an eight-hour workday.

  • Many of its reform ideas were later adopted by the Progressive Movement.

Progressive Movement

  • Goals of the Progressive Movement

    • A period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States from the 1890s to the 1920s. Key goals included:

    • Addressing problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, and corruption (especially political machines).

    • Promoting social justice and economic equality.

    • Protecting public health and safety.

    • Regulating big business.

    • Expanding democracy (e.g., women's suffrage, direct primary).

  • Jacob Riis

    • A Danish-American social reformer, "muckraking" journalist, and photographer. Known for using his photographic and journalistic talents to help the impoverished in New York City, particularly in his book How the Other Half Lives (1890), which exposed the harsh living conditions in city tenements.

  • Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire

    • A devastating industrial disaster that occurred in New York City on March 25, 1911. The fire, which killed 146 garment workers (mostly young immigrant women), highlighted the dangerous working conditions in factories and led to significant reforms in workplace safety and labor laws.

  • 16th-19th Amendments

    • 16th Amendment (1913): Authorized the federal government to levy an income tax.

    • 17th Amendment (1913): Established the direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote, replacing election by state legislatures.

    • 18th Amendment (1919): Prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcoholic beverages (Prohibition).

    • 19th Amendment (1920): Granted women the right to vote (women's suffrage).

  • Federal Reserve

    • Created by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913, it is the central banking system of the United States. Its main purposes are to provide the nation with a safe, flexible, and stable financial system, manage monetary policy, and act as a lender of last resort.

  • Recall

    • A progressive electoral reform that allows citizens to remove an elected official from office before the end of their term through a direct vote. This was intended to make government more accountable to the people.

  • The Jungle

    • A 1906 novel by Upton Sinclair that exposed the deplorable working conditions and unsanitary practices in the meatpacking industry of Chicago. It played a major role in the passage of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act.

  • NAACP - founded by W.E.B. Du Bois

    • National Association for the Advancement of Colored People: Founded in 1909 by a group of civil rights activists, including W.E.B. Du Bois. Its mission is to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination.

  • Roosevelt and conservation

    • President Theodore Roosevelt was a strong advocate for environmental conservation. He used his presidential authority to create national parks, wildlife refuges, and national forests, significantly expanding the amount of protected land in the U.S. He established the U.S. Forest Service.

  • Jane Addams

    • A prominent social reformer and peace activist, known for her pioneering work in the settlement house movement. Co-founded Hull House in Chicago in 1889, providing social and educational opportunities for working-class immigrants and advocating for public health, women's suffrage, and child labor laws.

  • Social Gospel Movement

    • A Christian intellectual movement prominent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It applied Christian ethics to social problems, particularly issues of social justice arising from industrialization, poverty, and corruption. Advocates urged Christians to engage actively in social reform and help the urban poor.

American Imperialism

  • Spanish-American War

    • A conflict in 1898 between the United States and Spain. Sparked by American intervention in the Cuban War of Independence, it resulted in the U.S. emerging as a world power with the acquisition of Spanish territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

  • Yellow Journalists

    • A style of newspaper reporting popular in the late 19th century that featured sensationalism, exaggerated stories, and eye-catching headlines to increase sales and provoke public emotion. Key figures like William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer used yellow journalism to rouse public support for the Spanish-American War.

  • Acquisition of the Philippines

    • After winning the Spanish-American War, the U.S. purchased the Philippines from Spain for 20\text{ million} as part of the Treaty of Paris (1898). This led to the Philippine-American War (1899-1902) as Filipinos fought for independence.

  • Theodore Roosevelt Hero of the Spanish-American War

    • Before becoming president, Theodore Roosevelt gained national fame for his role in the Spanish-American War. He resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Navy to lead the "Rough Riders," a volunteer cavalry regiment, in the Battle of San Juan Hill in Cuba, becoming a war hero.

  • Open Door Policy

    • Proposed by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay in 1899, this policy aimed to ensure equal trading rights for all nations in China and prevent any single power from monopolizing Chinese markets or territory. It sought to protect U.S. commercial interests in China.

World War 1

  • Assassination of Franz Ferdinand

    • The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife Sophie on June 28, 1914, by a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo, is widely considered the immediate trigger for the outbreak of World War I.

  • Zimmerman Telegram

    • A secret diplomatic communication intercepted in 1917 from the German Foreign Office that proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico if the United States entered World War I. Mexico would recover lost territories (Texas, New Mexico, Arizona). Its publication intensified anti-German sentiment in the U.S. and contributed to the U.S. decision to declare war.

  • Espionage Sedition Act

    • Two federal laws enacted in 1917 (Espionage Act) and 1918 (Sedition Act) that largely restricted freedom of speech during World War I. The Espionage Act prohibited interference with military operations or recruitment, while the Sedition Act made it a crime to criticize the government or the war effort. These acts were controversial for their perceived violation of civil liberties.

  • Woodrow Wilson wins 1916 election - He kept us out of war

    • Woodrow Wilson's re-election campaign in 1916 famously used the slogan "He kept us out of war." This phrase appealed to American isolationist sentiment and helped him secure a narrow victory, though the U.S. would enter the war just months later in April 1917.

  • Treaty of Versailles

    • One of the peace treaties at the end of World War I, signed on June 28, 1919, between the Allied powers and Germany. It imposed harsh terms on Germany, including territorial losses, reparations, and significant military restrictions. Its punitive nature is often cited as a contributing factor to future conflicts, including World War II.

  • Great Migration - Thousands of Black Americans migrated to the Northern cities to work in the war factories

    • Beginning around 1916 and lasting through the 1970s, the Great Migration saw millions of African Americans move from the rural South to industrial cities in the North, Midwest, and West. The initial phase was spurred by job opportunities in Northern factories during World War I and escape from Jim Crow segregation and violence in the South.

1920s

  • Sacco and Vanzetti Trial

    • Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were two Italian-born anarchists who were convicted of robbery and murder in Massachusetts in 1921. Their contentious trial and execution in 1927 became a cause célèbre for civil liberties advocates, many believing they were convicted due to their immigrant status and political beliefs rather than conclusive evidence.

  • Flappers

    • Young women in the 1920s who challenged traditional social norms. They typically wore shorter skirts, bobbed their hair, listened to jazz music, and embraced a more liberated lifestyle, often defying conventional expectations of femininity.

  • Palmer Raids

    • A series of aggressive law enforcement raids conducted in 1919 and 1920 by the U.S. Department of Justice and Immigration and Naturalization Service, led by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. They targeted alleged radical leftists, anarchists, and communists, many of whom were immigrants, in response to the "Red Scare" after World War I, resulting in mass arrests and deportations.

  • Consumerism and Credit

    • The 1920s saw a boom in consumerism, driven by new products (automobiles, radios, appliances) and aggressive advertising. The widespread availability of installment buying (credit) allowed Americans to purchase goods on payment plans, further fueling economic growth but also leading to accumulating debt.

  • Radio

    • Emerging as a mass medium in the 1920s, commercial radio revolutionized communication and entertainment. It broadcast news, music, sports, and serialized dramas into millions of homes, fostering a sense of national culture and connectivity.

  • Immigration Act of 1924

    • Also known as the Johnson-Reed Act, this federal law significantly restricted immigration to the U.S. by establishing a quota system that heavily favored immigrants from Western and Northern Europe and severely limited immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. It reflected a growing nativist sentiment.

  • New KKK

    • The Ku Klux Klan experienced a resurgence in the 1920s, expanding beyond its Southern roots to gain significant national membership. This "Second Ku Klux Klan" focused on promoting white supremacy, nativism, and anti-Catholic, anti-Jewish, and anti-immigrant sentiments, often using public parades and political influence.

  • Nativist Movement in the 1920s

    • Nativism, a policy of favoring native-born inhabitants over immigrants, surged in the 1920s. Fuelled by fears of communism (Red Scare), economic competition, and cultural differences, it led to restrictive immigration policies like the Immigration Act of 1924 and the rise of groups like the KKK.

  • Harlem Renaissance

    • A flourishing of African American intellectual, literary, and artistic life that emerged in the 1920s, centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City. It celebrated Black culture, identity, and experiences, producing influential works in literature, music (jazz and blues), and art.

  • Lost Generation Writers

    • A group of American writers who came of age during World War I and established their literary reputations in the 1920s. Disillusioned by post-war society and materialism, they often critiqued American consumerism and societal values. Notable figures include F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, and T.S. Eliot.

  • 1920s Republican pro-business presidents: Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover

    • These three Republican presidents presided over the 1920s, generally pursuing pro-business policies, tax cuts, and limited government intervention. Their administrations were largely characterized by economic prosperity until the end of the decade.

    • Warren Harding (1921-1923): Advocated for a "return to normalcy" after WWI, marked by lower taxes and less government regulation. His administration was marred by scandals, notably Teapot Dome.

    • Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929): Succeeded Harding. Known for his pro-business stance, famously stating, "the business of America is business." He oversaw a period of economic growth and deregulation.

    • Herbert Hoover (1929-1933): Elected months before the stock market crash, he initially responded to the Great Depression with voluntarism and limited federal intervention, which proved insufficient.

  • Marcus Garvey

    • A Jamaican political activist, publisher, journalist, and entrepreneur who was a proponent of Black nationalism and Pan-Africanism in the 1920s.

    • Founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL), advocating for racial pride, economic independence, and a "Back to Africa" movement.

    • His movement emphasized self-reliance and unity among people of African descent worldwide.

1930s

  • Causes of the Great Depression

    • Several interconnected factors contributed to the Great Depression:

    • Stock Market Crash of 1929: A sudden and dramatic decline in stock prices, wiping out billions of dollars in wealth and consumer confidence.

    • Bank Failures: Widespread bank runs and failures led to a loss of savings and credit.

    • Overproduction and Underconsumption: Factories produced more goods than consumers could afford to buy, leading to unsold inventories and layoffs.

    • Agricultural Overproduction: Farmers struggled with low prices and debt due to overproduction from WWI.

    • Unequal Distribution of Wealth: A significant portion of the nation's wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few, limiting overall consumer demand.

    • High Tariffs and International Debt: Protectionist trade policies (e.g., Smoot-Hawley Tariff) stifled international trade, and war debts strained global economies.

    • Lack of Regulation: Weak government oversight of banking and the stock market contributed to speculative bubbles.

  • Role of the federal government changed after the Great Depression

    • The Great Depression fundamentally transformed the role of the federal government. Before the Depression, government intervention in the economy was limited. Afterward, through Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, the government expanded its power and responsibility to:

    • Regulate the economy and financial markets (e.g., banking, stock market).

    • Provide a social safety net (e.g., Social Security, unemployment insurance).

    • Direct large-scale public works projects to create jobs and infrastructure.

    • Act as a guarantor of economic stability and citizen welfare.

  • The Dust Bowl

    • A severe drought and period of intense dust storms that affected the Great Plains region of the United States and Canada during the 1930s. Caused by a combination of drought, unsustainable farming practices (e.g., extensive plowing without contouring or cover crops), and high winds, it led to massive ecological damage, forced migration (especially of "Okies" to California), and deepened the economic hardship of the Great Depression.

  • Stock market crash in 1929 triggered the Great Depression and causes of the Great Depression

    • While the stock market crash in October 1929 is often seen as the immediate catalyst, it was one of several underlying causes that triggered the Great Depression. The crash itself was a symptom and exacerbating factor rather than the sole cause; it instantly destroyed investor confidence and capital, leading to a cascade of economic failures rooted in the aforementioned issues like overproduction, unequal wealth, and bank instability.

  • Franklin D. Roosevelt

    • Elected in 1932, Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) served as the 32nd U.S. President during the Great Depression and World War II. His "New Deal" programs aimed to bring relief, recovery, and reform to the country, dramatically expanding the role of the federal government. He was elected an unprecedented four times.

  • Glass-Steagall Act

    • Officially the Banking Act of 1933, this legislation separated commercial banking from investment banking. It created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to insure bank deposits, restoring public confidence in the banking system, and prohibited commercial banks from engaging in speculative investments.

  • Social Security

    • Established by the Social Security Act of 1935, it created a national system of social insurance for Americans. It provides federal assistance to the elderly, unemployed, and disabled, funded through payroll taxes. It represents a cornerstone of the American social safety net.

  • AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Act)

    • Enacted in 1933 as part of the New Deal, the AAA aimed to restore agricultural prosperity by reducing farm surplus and raising crop prices. It paid farmers subsidies to voluntarily reduce their crop production and animal herds. While controversial (e.g., leading to the destruction of crops and livestock).

  • Herbert Hoover's Actions During the Great Depression

    • Voluntarism: Initially emphasized voluntary cooperation among businesses, asking them to maintain wages and production, and unions to avoid strikes.

    • Limited direct relief: Believed in "rugged individualism" and opposed large-scale federal direct relief, fearing it would create dependency.

    • Public Works: Initiated some public works projects, most notably the Boulder Dam (later renamed Hoover Dam), to create jobs.

    • Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act (1930): Signed into law a highly protectionist tariff, which significantly raised import duties. This act is widely considered to have worsened the Great Depression by stifling international trade and provoking retaliatory tariffs from other countries.

    • Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) (1932): Established to provide emergency loans to banks, railroads, and other large businesses to prevent their collapse. It was a significant step toward federal intervention but was often criticized as being too little, too late, and only helping corporations, not individuals.