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Absolute threshold: The minimum stimulus needed for detection.
Difference threshold: The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected.
Weber’s Law: The principle that the size of the Just-Noticeable Difference (JND) is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.
Vision
Photoreceptors (rods and cones): The cells in the retina responsible for detecting light.
Trichromatic theory: The theory of color vision that suggests we have three types of cones (red, green, blue) that allow us to see color.
Opponent-process theory: The theory that color perception is controlled by the activity of two opponent systems (red-green, blue-yellow).
Hearing
Frequency theory: Explains how we perceive pitch based on the frequency of sound waves.
Place theory: Explains pitch perception based on where vibrations occur on the basilar membrane.
Cochlea: The spiral-shaped organ in the inner ear that plays a key role in hearing.
Key Sensory Processes
Transduction: The process of converting stimuli into neural signals.
Sensory adaptation: The diminishing sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.
High-Yield Concepts in Perception
Perception Theories
Gestalt Psychology: A theory that emphasizes the human ability to perceive patterns and wholes, not just parts (e.g., figure-ground relationship, proximity, similarity).
Top-down processing: Perception that is guided by higher-level cognitive processes, like expectations.
Bottom-up processing: Perception that starts with sensory input and works up to higher cognitive processes.
Depth and Distance Perception
Binocular depth cues: Cues for perceiving depth that require two eyes, like retinal disparity and convergence.
Monocular depth cues: Cues for perceiving depth that only require one eye, like linear perspective, relative size, and texture gradient.
Attention and Perception
Selective attention: The process of focusing on one specific thing while ignoring others (e.g., the cocktail party effect).
Change blindness: The failure to notice significant changes in a visual scene.2.2 Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, & Decision-Making
Heuristics – Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" used for problem-solving and decision-making.
Algorithms – Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution to a problem.
Executive Functions – Higher-order cognitive processes involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and planning.
Framing – The way information is presented that influences decision-making.
Mental Set – A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experiences.
Gambler’s Fallacy – The mistaken belief that past random events influence future random events (e.g., thinking a coin is "due" to land heads after many tails).
Sunk-cost Fallacy – The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made.
Creativity – The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Convergent Thinking – Narrowing down multiple ideas to a single solution.
Divergent Thinking – Generating a wide variety of possible solutions to a problem.
2.3 Introduction to Memory
Long-Term Memory – The stage of memory with the capacity to store information for long periods of time.
Encoding – The process of getting information into memory.
Retrieval – The process of getting information out of memory.
Working Memory – A memory system involved in holding and processing information temporarily.
Long-Term Potentiation – A long-lasting strengthening of synapses between nerve cells, believed to be the basis of learning and memory.
Episodic Memory – Memory for specific events or experiences.
Semantic Memory – Memory for facts and general knowledge.
Implicit Memory – Unconscious memory (e.g., how to ride a bike).
Explicit Memory – Conscious memory (e.g., remembering a specific date).
Levels of Processing Model – The theory that memory retention depends on how deeply information is processed (shallow vs. deep processing).
2.5 Storing Memories
Memory Retention – The ability to retain information over time.
Rehearsal – Repeating information to encode it into long-term memory.
Amnesia – Memory loss, often caused by trauma or brain injury.
Alzheimer’s Disease – A neurodegenerative disease that affects memory and cognition.
2.6 Retrieving Memories
Context-dependent Memory – The phenomenon where memory retrieval is better when in the same environment as when the memory was encoded.
State-dependent Memory – The phenomenon where memory retrieval is better when in the same emotional or physical state as when the memory was encoded.
Recall – Retrieving information without cues.
Recognition – Identifying information from a set of options.
2.8 Intelligence & Achievement
Intelligence – The ability to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, and solve problems.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) – A measure of intelligence derived from standardized tests.
Multiple Intelligences – Howard Gardner’s theory that intelligence is composed of several different types, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, etc.
Reliability – The consistency of a test's results over time.
Validity – The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
Growth Mindset – The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort.
Fixed Mindset – The belief that abilities and intelligence are static and cannot change.
Secondary Concepts to Review (Remaining 20%):
2.2 Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, & Decision-Making
Availability Heuristic – Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory (e.g., overestimating the danger of plane crashes because they’re heavily covered in the media).
Assimilation – Interpreting new information based on existing schemas or frameworks.
Accommodation – Adjusting schemas or frameworks to incorporate new information.
Prototypes – Mental representations of the most typical examples of a category.
2.3 Introduction to Memory
Echoic Memory – A brief sensory memory of auditory stimuli.
Iconic Memory – A brief sensory memory of visual stimuli.
Phonological Loop – The part of working memory that deals with auditory information.
Visuospatial Sketchpad – The part of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.
2.5 Storing Memories
Infantile Amnesia – The inability to remember events from early childhood.
Autobiographical Memory – Memory of one’s life events and experiences.
Elaborative Rehearsal – A technique for improving memory by associating new information with existing knowledge.
2.6 Retrieving Memories
Metacognition – Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes.
Mood-congruent Memory – The tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one’s current mood.
Testing Effect – The phenomenon where taking tests helps improve memory retention.
2.7 Forgetting & Other Memory Challenges
Constructive Memory – Memory that is influenced by current knowledge, expectations, and other factors.
Encoding Failure – The inability to store information in long-term memory due to a failure to encode it properly.
Forgetting Curve – A graph that shows how information is forgotten over time.
Misinformation Effect – The distortion of memories due to misleading information.
Proactive Interference – When old information interferes with the ability to learn new information.
Retroactive Interference – When new information interferes with the recall of old information.
2.8 Intelligence & Achievement
Flynn Effect – The observed rise in IQ scores over time.
Aptitude Tests – Tests designed to measure potential or ability in a specific area.
Achievement Tests – Tests designed to measure what someone has already learned or accomplished.
Test-Retest Reliability – The consistency of test results when the same test is given multiple times.
Let's apply the 80/20 Rule to your Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior vocabulary to help you focus on the most important concepts for your test. The goal is to prioritize the terms and ideas that will likely be most significant for the test while still reviewing secondary concepts if you have time.
Key Concepts to Focus On (80% of what you need to know):
1.1 Interaction of Heredity and Environment
Nature-Nurture Issue – The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to human development and behavior.
Heredity – The genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.
Genetic Predisposition – An inherited genetic pattern that makes someone more likely to develop certain traits or behaviors.
Evolutionary Perspective – The approach that views human behavior through the lens of natural selection and adaptation over time.
Twin Studies – Research that compares the behavior of identical and fraternal twins to understand the role of genetics and environment in development.
1.2 Overview of the Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS) – The brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and transmitting information.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – The network of nerves outside the CNS, connecting it to the rest of the body.
Autonomic Nervous System – The part of the PNS that controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate and digestion.
Sympathetic Nervous System – The branch of the autonomic nervous system that activates the "fight or flight" response during stressful situations.
Parasympathetic Nervous System – The branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after stress (rest and digest).
Somatic Nervous System – The branch of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
1.3 The Neuron and Neural Firing
Action Potential – The electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron, transmitting information.
Neurotransmitters (NTMs) – Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. Important ones include:
Dopamine – Involved in reward, motivation, and motor control.
Serotonin – Affects mood, sleep, and appetite.
Acetylcholine – Involved in learning and memory, and muscle movement.
GABA – A major inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms the nervous system.
Norepinephrine – Plays a role in arousal and alertness.
Myelin Sheath – A fatty layer that insulates axons, speeding up neural transmission.
Reuptake – The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them.
Synapse – The gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released and received.
1.4 The Brain
Brainstem – The part of the brain that controls basic life functions such as breathing and heartbeat.
Limbic System – A group of structures involved in emotions and motivation (includes the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus).
Cerebrum – The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher functions like thought, memory, and voluntary movement.
Frontal Lobe – The lobe of the brain associated with decision-making, problem-solving, and executive functions.
Motor Cortex – Part of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary muscle movements.
Sensory Cortex – Located in the parietal lobe, it processes sensory input from the body.
Broca’s Area – A region in the frontal lobe responsible for speech production.
Wernicke’s Area – A region in the temporal lobe involved in understanding speech.
Corpus Callosum – The structure that connects the two hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them.
1.5 Sleep
Circadian Rhythm – The body’s natural 24-hour cycle, regulating sleep-wake patterns.
REM Sleep – A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis.
NREM Sleep – Non-REM sleep stages that include restorative deep sleep.
Sleep Apnea – A sleep disorder where breathing stops and starts repeatedly during sleep.
Insomnia – Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy – A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.
Sleep Hygiene – Healthy sleep habits that promote better sleep (e.g., regular sleep schedule, limiting screen time).
1.6 Sensation
Sensation – The process of detecting physical stimuli in the environment and converting them into neural signals.
Absolute Threshold – The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.
Difference Threshold (Just-Noticeable Difference) – The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.
Transduction – The conversion of sensory input (e.g., light, sound) into neural signals.
Weber’s Law – The principle that the just-noticeable difference is proportional to the original stimulus.
Sensory Adaptation – The process by which sensory receptors become less responsive to constant stimuli over time.
Photoreceptors – Cells in the retina (rods and cones) that detect light and color.
Rods – Photoreceptors in the retina responsible for vision in low light.
Cones – Photoreceptors responsible for color vision and fine detail.
2.1 Perception
Bottom-up Processing – Perception that starts with sensory input and builds up to a final representation.
Top-down Processing – Perception driven by prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences.
Gestalt Psychology – The theory that the brain organizes sensory input into meaningful patterns or wholes.
Figure-Ground – The organization of visual information into a figure (the focus) and background.
Binocular Depth Cues – Cues for depth perception that require two eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence.
Monocular Depth Cues – Depth cues that can be perceived with one eye, including interposition, relative size, and linear perspective.
Selective Attention – Focusing on one particular stimulus or task while ignoring others.
Secondary Concepts to Review (Remaining 20%):
1.1 Interaction of Heredity and Environment
Adoption Studies – Studies that compare adopted children with their biological and adoptive parents to understand genetic and environmental influences.
Eugenics – The controversial belief in improving the genetic quality of the human population through selective breeding.
Family Studies – Research that looks at the degree of similarity in traits among family members to understand the influence of genetics.
Natural Selection – The process by which traits that improve survival and reproduction become more common in a population.
1.3 The Neuron and Neural Firing
Glial Cells – Supportive cells in the nervous system that help maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and protect neurons.
Depolarization – The change in a neuron’s membrane potential that makes it more positive and triggers an action potential.
Refractory Period – The time following an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire another action potential.
Motor Neurons – Neurons that carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.
Sensory Neurons – Neurons that carry sensory information from the body to the brain.
1.4 The Brain
Medulla Oblongata – A structure in the hindbrain that controls vital life functions like heart rate and breathing.
Pons – A brain structure that relays information between the cerebellum and cerebrum and plays a role in sleep.
Amygdala – A limbic structure involved in emotion regulation, particularly fear.
Hippocampus – A structure in the limbic system involved in memory formation.
Plasticity – The brain’s ability to reorganize itself and form new neural connections, especially after injury.
EEG (Electroencephalogram) – A test that measures electrical activity in the brain.
1.5 Sleep
REM Rebound – The tendency to experience longer periods of REM sleep following sleep deprivation.
Hypnagogic Sensations – Vivid sensory experiences that occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep.
Study Strategy Using 80/20 Rule:
Focus on the Key Concepts: Spend most of your time understanding the broad, core ideas that appear frequently on exams (e.g., Heuristics, Long-Term Memory, Intelligence, Retrieval, etc.).
Review Secondary Terms: Quickly go through the secondary terms to reinforce your understanding but don't spend too much time on them unless you have extra time or if you encounter them in practice questions.
Use Active Recall: Focus on recalling the definitions and concepts from memory, especially the core ones. Practice applying them to examples.
Take Breaks and Space Out Learning: Spread your review across short study sessions with breaks in between to reinforce memory retention and avoid burnout.