The Eighteenth Century: European States, International Wars, and Social Change

Chapter 18: The Eighteenth Century: European States, International Wars, and Social Change

Chapter Outline and Focus Questions

  • 18-1 The European States

    • Key Question: What were the main developments in France, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Poland, the Mediterranean states, and the Scandinavian monarchies?

Introduction

  • The eighteenth century was marked by significant developments in various European states, characterized by centralization, military competition, and social change.

  • A pivotal element of this period was the emergence of major powers, notably Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, that would shape European dynamics up to World War I.

Section on France

  • Economic and Political Climate

    • France saw an economic revival alongside the Enlightenment, but the monarchy resisted the reforms proposed by the philosophes.

    • The legacy of Louis XIV left France with larger territories but significant debt and social unrest, exacerbated by a young successor (Louis XV’s great-grandson).

  • Leadership Challenges

    • The governance initially fell to the Duke of Orléans (the regent), whose attempts at reform were hindered by reckless behavior.

    • Cardinal Fleury became the king's minister and had successes in stabilizing the economy and balancing the budget temporarily.

    • Following Fleury’s death, Louis XV ruled alone but was deemed ineffective, allowing ministers and mistresses, including the influential Madame de Pompadour, to steer state affairs.

  • Foreign Policy and Conflicts

    • Heavy taxation and defeat in wars, particularly the Seven Years' War, contributed to the monarchy’s decline in prestige and power.

Historical Voices: The French King's Bedtime

  • Cultural Shift

    • An account from the Memoirs of the Comtesse de Boigne illustrates the absurdities of court etiquette during Louis XVI’s reign compared to procedures during Louis XIV’s time.

    • The formal ceremony of the king’s coucher (KOO-shay), held at half-past nine every evening, reflected the degree of ceremonial pomp:

    • The king, Louis XVI, would enter with his hair curled, attended by court members, but he was detached and ignored most attendees.

    • Ritual incorporated participation from the chaplain and valets but revealed how court ceremonialism had become excessive compared to its earlier significance.

Chronology of Leadership in Britain and France

  • French Monarchs:

    • Louis XV (1715-1774)

    • Louis XVI (1774-1792)

  • British Monarchs:

    • George I (1714-1727)

    • George II (1727-1760)

    • George III (1760-1820)

  • Prominent Political Figures in Britain:

    • Robert Walpole (Prime Minister 1721-1742) and his peaceful foreign policy contrasted with rising pressures in trade, leading to calls for expansion.

    • William Pitt the Elder (Prime Minister 1757-1761), who significantly influenced expansionist policies, acquiring territories like Canada and India during the Seven Years' War.

    • Discontent under George III, especially related to electoral issues and the loss of American colonies, intensified public criticism in Britain.

The Balance of Power in Eighteenth-Century Europe

  • Concept Overview

    • Eighteenth-century international relations were underpinned by self-interest among states, leading to a balance of power theory aimed at preventing any singular state from overwhelming others.

    • The existence of large standing armies often catalyzed war rather than peace, illustrating Frederick the Great of Prussia’s assertion regarding territorial expansion.

  • Shifts in Diplomatic Focus

    • Initially dominated by dynastic interests, diplomacy evolved to consider long-term state interests, with rulers practicing the "reason of state" concept advocating policies that transcended narrow dynastic goals.

  • Centralization and State Control

    • The necessity for funding large armies led to increased bureaucratic efficiency and power consolidation, which allowed states to wage military conflicts effectively.

Map of the Seven Years' War

  • The Seven Years' War was characterized as a global conflict, where major European powers engaged in warfare both within and outside Europe.

    • Military engagements affected territories including Canada and India, demonstrating the interconnected nature of colonial ambitions and European rivalries.

Figure of Robert Clive

  • Robert Clive emerged as a critical leader for the East India Company, tasked with fighting local rulers in India, illustrating the economic motivations behind European colonial expansion during this period.