Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.

Note

Studied by 11 people

4.5(2)

Memory

NOTES – Catching the moment:

Memory Concepts

1. Episodic Memory:

o Unique events tied to context (e.g., time and place).

o Impaired by hippocampal damage (e.g., Patient HM).

o Role of hippocampus:

§ Binding associations (person-place, item-context).

§ Memory formation.

2. Semantic Memory:

o Context-independent factual knowledge.

3. Dual Code Theory (Paivio, 1971):

o Combines verbal and visual representations for richer memory traces.

o Explains picture superiority effect (images are more memorable than words).

4. Distinctiveness:

o Memory boosted by distinctive processing.

o Von Restorff effect: Unique items in a similar context are remembered better.

Brain Regions Involved

1. Hippocampus:

o Critical for linking details to context.

o Attention enhances hippocampal activity during encoding.

2. Prefrontal Cortex (PFC):

o Dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC): Organizes material for encoding.

o Ventrolateral PFC (VLPFC): Supports semantic encoding and control.

3. Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC):

o Schema-related information encoding.

o Predicts academic performance when linked to prior knowledge.

Factors Influencing Memory Encoding

1. Attention:

o Divided attention impairs encoding (Craik et al., 1996).

o Full focus boosts hippocampal inputs.

2. Distinctiveness:

o Enhanced activation in hippocampus with distinctive processing.

3. Elaboration:

o Relating new material to prior knowledge.

o Example: Meaningful mental imagery.

4. Organization:

o Encoding is aided by structuring material meaningfully.

Learning Strategies

1. Avoid multitasking to maximize attention.

2. Relate new material to schemas (existing knowledge frameworks).

3. Use elaborative strategies:

o Mental imagery.

o Associating new content with known concepts.

4. Seek distinctive processing:

o Highlight unique features of the material.

NOTES – Using it not Losing it:

Key Concepts of Memory Retrieval

Memory Encoding and Retrieval: After storing (encoding) a memory, retrieval depends on effective memory cues and conditions. Retrieval is influenced by cues, testing, and memory context.
Contextual Reinstatement: Partially recalling specific memory details (e.g., the environment or emotions felt) can trigger full memory recollection. Matching cues aid in retrieval by aligning with stored memory.

Encoding Specificity Principle: Memory retrieval improves when cues match the cognitive context of encoding. Depth of encoding (e.g., semantic or rhyme-based) affects how well a cue can trigger memory.

Research and Experiments

Godden & Baddeley (1975): Free recall improved when the testing environment matched the study environment (e.g., underwater or land).
Polyn et al. (2005): Brain imaging showed that recall of events reactivates similar neural patterns experienced during encoding. This neural reinstatement reflects episodic memory and the brain’s ability to “relive the past.”

Key Techniques in Memory Enhancement

The Testing Effect: Regularly testing memory improves long-term recall more than restudying. Testing enriches memory through:
- Semantic Elaboration: Testing strengthens associative networks, providing alternate retrieval routes.
- Contextual Updating: Repeated testing expands the range of effective cues by including various contexts of retrieval.

Roediger & Karpicke (2006): Found a significant reduction in forgetting through repeated recall tests (STTT) versus only studying (SSSS).
Sekeres et al. (2016): Repeated testing helps retain peripheral details (contextual cues) of memories, not just the core content.

Practical Applications

The Cognitive Interview: For eyewitnesses, memory cues (e.g., sensory details) can aid in recall by reinstating the original context.
Mnemonic Strategies: Self-generated memory cues improve retention, as do organizing and visually associating information.

Summary of Core Strategies

Effective Cues: Memory cues that overlap with stored information and are diagnostic (specific) aid memory recall.
Testing Over Time: Continuous self-testing helps retain information, indicating memory durability.
Active Reinstatement: Engaging in self-cueing or deliberate recollection can help retrieve details of past experiences.

Key Takeaway

Memory retrieval is cue-dependent, not just about retaining information. Active retrieval and testing help maintain memory durability, supporting long-term learning.

NOTES – Sins of Memory:

Types of Memory Errors

1. Schema and Gist Errors:

o Gist Memory:

§ Memory includes semantic associations beyond the studied content (e.g., DRM illusion by Roediger & McDermott, 1995).

§ False memories often vivid and involve critical "lures."

o Schema-Expectancy Errors:

§ Schemas guide recall but can distort memory (e.g., Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts, Brewer & Treyens’ office object study).

§ High-schema objects may be falsely recognized.

2. Misattribution Errors:

o Source confusion (e.g., reality monitoring errors, imagination inflation).

o Errors arise when distinguishing real vs. imagined experiences.

3. Misinformation Errors:

o Post-event information alters memory (e.g., Loftus & Palmer’s car crash study).

o Reflects the brain's tendency to update memories.

Experimental Insights

1. DRM Illusion:

o False recognition arises due to semantic associations.

o Brain mechanisms:

§ Hippocampus: Supports normal false memory processes.

§ mPFC: Schema use contributes to errors.

§ DLPFC Damage: Increases false memory due to impaired memory control.

2. Gist Memory for Pictures:

o Categorized pictures lead to false alarms (~20%).

o Impaired in aging and Alzheimer’s (Koutstaal & Schacter, 1997).

3. True vs. False Memories:

o Overlap: fMRI shows similar activity in PFC and hippocampus for both (Garoff-Eaton et al., 2006).

o Differences: True memories show more sensory detail and visual cortex activity (Dennis et al., 2012).

4. Real-World Biases:

o Stereotypes and schemas influence memory:

§ Allport & Postman (1947): Memory bias in racial contexts.

§ Murphy et al. (2019): Higher recall of fake news aligned with personal beliefs.

Control Mechanisms

1. Source Monitoring:

o Evaluating the origins of memories (Johnson et al., 1993).

o Errors lead to cryptomnesia (unconscious plagiarism).

2. Executive Control:

o PFC supports monitoring and evaluation of memories.

o Active post-retrieval monitoring mitigates false memories if distinctions exist.

Applications

1. Eyewitness Testimony:

o High error rate in wrongful convictions due to unreliable memory.

o Police questioning can bias memories.

2. Cognitive Interview (Geiselman et al., 1985):

o Stages:

1. Reinstating context.

2. Recalling in reverse order.

3. Reporting all details.

4. Describing events from other perspectives.

3. Memory Updating:

o A downside of adaptive memory systems (e.g., misinformation effect).

Real-Life Memory Insights

Naturalistic Studies:
- Wynn & Logie (1998): Stable memory for familiar, schema-consistent events.
Bartlett’s Study:
- Repeated recall increased distortions, highlighting schemas' dual role.

Key Messages

Memory is constructive, not a perfect recording—more like a "Wiki page."
Errors arise from adaptive mechanisms that also support learning.
Gist memory, schemas, and control processes interplay in forming both accurate and false memories.

NOTES – Hacking your memory:

Effective Note-Taking

Purpose of Notes:
- Aid deep and elaborative encoding of lecture material.
- Provide external storage for information beyond lecture slides.
- Support revision and later study.
Tips:
- Use slides to structure your notes.
- Summarize and paraphrase for deeper understanding.
- Relate content to prior knowledge.
- Highlight unclear areas and conflicting evidence for follow-up.
Medium Matters:
- Handwritten notes promote deeper processing compared to verbatim laptop notes (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014).
- Laptops may encourage multitasking, reducing comprehension (Sana et al., 2013).

Elaboration and Mnemonics

Elaborative Techniques:
- Elaborative Interrogation: Explain why facts or concepts are true.
- Self-Explanation: Relate new material to existing knowledge or solve step-by-step problems.
Keyword Mnemonics:
- Example: "Hippocampus" -> "Hippo visiting a campus, triggering memories."
- Useful for recall and higher-order thinking (Richmond et al., 2011).

Encoding Strategies

1. Deep Encoding:

o Relate new information to existing schemas (van Kesteren et al., 2014).

o Organize material to highlight meaningful connections.

2. Active Attention:

o Eliminate distractions to improve memory encoding.

o Process information for distinctiveness and meaning.

3. Self-Generated Cues:

o Create personal associations with study material for retrieval (e.g., mnemonic linking “Ruth” to nucleus as a family center, Tullis & Finley, 2018).

o Use the encoding specificity principle: Memory improves when context at retrieval matches encoding.

The Testing Effect

Benefits of Testing:
- Promotes better retention than restudying (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).
- Reduces forgetting significantly over time.
Study vs. Testing:
- Quizzes (without feedback) improve recall of conceptually related material more than studying alone (Thomas et al., 2020).

Spacing Effect

Revisiting material over time aids long-term retention:
- Spaced learning (e.g., periodic review sessions) is better than massed learning (Cepeda et al., 2006).
- Expanding intervals between reviews is optimal for long-term memory.

Generalization of Memory

Schema-Driven Learning:
- Memory for new material is better when it aligns with pre-existing schemas (van Kesteren et al., 2018).
- Students should prepare by revisiting foundational concepts before lectures.

Practical Study Techniques

1. Before Class:

o Read and review prior material.

o Prepare questions on unclear concepts.

2. During Class:

o Take organized, selective notes.

o Focus attention on distinctive and meaningful points.

3. After Class:

o Actively test knowledge through self-quizzing.

o Engage in spaced practice.

Revision Insights

Highly Effective Methods:
- Testing yourself (most effective).
- Interleaved practice and self-explanation.
Less Useful Methods:
- Re-reading material or summarization.
Combining Strategies:
- Mnemonics and testing can work together but require effort and suitable material.