Memory

NOTES – Catching the moment:

Memory Concepts

1.    Episodic Memory:

o   Unique events tied to context (e.g., time and place).

o   Impaired by hippocampal damage (e.g., Patient HM).

o   Role of hippocampus:

§  Binding associations (person-place, item-context).

§  Memory formation.

2.    Semantic Memory:

o   Context-independent factual knowledge.

3.    Dual Code Theory (Paivio, 1971):

o   Combines verbal and visual representations for richer memory traces.

o   Explains picture superiority effect (images are more memorable than words).

4.    Distinctiveness:

o   Memory boosted by distinctive processing.

o   Von Restorff effect: Unique items in a similar context are remembered better.

Brain Regions Involved

1.    Hippocampus:

o   Critical for linking details to context.

o   Attention enhances hippocampal activity during encoding.

2.    Prefrontal Cortex (PFC):

o   Dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC): Organizes material for encoding.

o   Ventrolateral PFC (VLPFC): Supports semantic encoding and control.

3.    Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC):

o   Schema-related information encoding.

o   Predicts academic performance when linked to prior knowledge.

Factors Influencing Memory Encoding

1.    Attention:

o   Divided attention impairs encoding (Craik et al., 1996).

o   Full focus boosts hippocampal inputs.

2.    Distinctiveness:

o   Enhanced activation in hippocampus with distinctive processing.

3.    Elaboration:

o   Relating new material to prior knowledge.

o   Example: Meaningful mental imagery.

4.    Organization:

o   Encoding is aided by structuring material meaningfully.

Learning Strategies

1.    Avoid multitasking to maximize attention.

2.    Relate new material to schemas (existing knowledge frameworks).

3.    Use elaborative strategies:

o   Mental imagery.

o   Associating new content with known concepts.

4.    Seek distinctive processing:

o   Highlight unique features of the material.

NOTES – Using it not Losing it:

Key Concepts of Memory Retrieval

• Memory Encoding and Retrieval: After storing (encoding) a memory, retrieval depends on effective memory cues and conditions. Retrieval is influenced by cues, testing, and memory context.

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• Contextual Reinstatement: Partially recalling specific memory details (e.g., the environment or emotions felt) can trigger full memory recollection. Matching cues aid in retrieval by aligning with stored memory.

• Encoding Specificity Principle: Memory retrieval improves when cues match the cognitive context of encoding. Depth of encoding (e.g., semantic or rhyme-based) affects how well a cue can trigger memory.

Research and Experiments

1. Godden & Baddeley (1975): Free recall improved when the testing environment matched the study environment (e.g., underwater or land).

2. Polyn et al. (2005): Brain imaging showed that recall of events reactivates similar neural patterns experienced during encoding. This neural reinstatement reflects episodic memory and the brain’s ability to “relive the past.”

Key Techniques in Memory Enhancement

• The Testing Effect: Regularly testing memory improves long-term recall more than restudying. Testing enriches memory through:

  • Semantic Elaboration: Testing strengthens associative networks, providing alternate retrieval routes.

  • Contextual Updating: Repeated testing expands the range of effective cues by including various contexts of retrieval.

3. Roediger & Karpicke (2006): Found a significant reduction in forgetting through repeated recall tests (STTT) versus only studying (SSSS).

4. Sekeres et al. (2016): Repeated testing helps retain peripheral details (contextual cues) of memories, not just the core content.

Practical Applications

• The Cognitive Interview: For eyewitnesses, memory cues (e.g., sensory details) can aid in recall by reinstating the original context.

• Mnemonic Strategies: Self-generated memory cues improve retention, as do organizing and visually associating information.

Summary of Core Strategies

• Effective Cues: Memory cues that overlap with stored information and are diagnostic (specific) aid memory recall.

• Testing Over Time: Continuous self-testing helps retain information, indicating memory durability.

• Active Reinstatement: Engaging in self-cueing or deliberate recollection can help retrieve details of past experiences.

Key Takeaway

Memory retrieval is cue-dependent, not just about retaining information. Active retrieval and testing help maintain memory durability, supporting long-term learning.

NOTES – Sins of Memory:

Types of Memory Errors

1.    Schema and Gist Errors:

o   Gist Memory:

§  Memory includes semantic associations beyond the studied content (e.g., DRM illusion by Roediger & McDermott, 1995).

§  False memories often vivid and involve critical "lures."

o   Schema-Expectancy Errors:

§  Schemas guide recall but can distort memory (e.g., Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts, Brewer & Treyens’ office object study).

§  High-schema objects may be falsely recognized.

2.    Misattribution Errors:

o   Source confusion (e.g., reality monitoring errors, imagination inflation).

o   Errors arise when distinguishing real vs. imagined experiences.

3.    Misinformation Errors:

o   Post-event information alters memory (e.g., Loftus & Palmer’s car crash study).

o   Reflects the brain's tendency to update memories.

Experimental Insights

1.    DRM Illusion:

o   False recognition arises due to semantic associations.

o   Brain mechanisms:

§  Hippocampus: Supports normal false memory processes.

§  mPFC: Schema use contributes to errors.

§  DLPFC Damage: Increases false memory due to impaired memory control.

2.    Gist Memory for Pictures:

o   Categorized pictures lead to false alarms (~20%).

o   Impaired in aging and Alzheimer’s (Koutstaal & Schacter, 1997).

3.    True vs. False Memories:

o   Overlap: fMRI shows similar activity in PFC and hippocampus for both (Garoff-Eaton et al., 2006).

o   Differences: True memories show more sensory detail and visual cortex activity (Dennis et al., 2012).

4.    Real-World Biases:

o   Stereotypes and schemas influence memory:

§  Allport & Postman (1947): Memory bias in racial contexts.

§  Murphy et al. (2019): Higher recall of fake news aligned with personal beliefs.

Control Mechanisms

1.    Source Monitoring:

o   Evaluating the origins of memories (Johnson et al., 1993).

o   Errors lead to cryptomnesia (unconscious plagiarism).

2.    Executive Control:

o   PFC supports monitoring and evaluation of memories.

o   Active post-retrieval monitoring mitigates false memories if distinctions exist.

Applications

1.    Eyewitness Testimony:

o   High error rate in wrongful convictions due to unreliable memory.

o   Police questioning can bias memories.

2.    Cognitive Interview (Geiselman et al., 1985):

o   Stages:

1.    Reinstating context.

2.    Recalling in reverse order.

3.    Reporting all details.

4.    Describing events from other perspectives.

3.    Memory Updating:

o   A downside of adaptive memory systems (e.g., misinformation effect).

Real-Life Memory Insights

• Naturalistic Studies:

  • Wynn & Logie (1998): Stable memory for familiar, schema-consistent events.

• Bartlett’s Study:

  • Repeated recall increased distortions, highlighting schemas' dual role.

Key Messages

• Memory is constructive, not a perfect recording—more like a "Wiki page."

• Errors arise from adaptive mechanisms that also support learning.

• Gist memory, schemas, and control processes interplay in forming both accurate and false memories.

NOTES – Hacking your memory:

Effective Note-Taking

• Purpose of Notes:

  • Aid deep and elaborative encoding of lecture material.

  • Provide external storage for information beyond lecture slides.

  • Support revision and later study.

• Tips:

  • Use slides to structure your notes.

  • Summarize and paraphrase for deeper understanding.

  • Relate content to prior knowledge.

  • Highlight unclear areas and conflicting evidence for follow-up.

• Medium Matters:

  • Handwritten notes promote deeper processing compared to verbatim laptop notes (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014).

  • Laptops may encourage multitasking, reducing comprehension (Sana et al., 2013).

Elaboration and Mnemonics

• Elaborative Techniques:

  • Elaborative Interrogation: Explain why facts or concepts are true.

  • Self-Explanation: Relate new material to existing knowledge or solve step-by-step problems.

• Keyword Mnemonics:

  • Example: "Hippocampus" -> "Hippo visiting a campus, triggering memories."

  • Useful for recall and higher-order thinking (Richmond et al., 2011).

Encoding Strategies

1.    Deep Encoding:

o   Relate new information to existing schemas (van Kesteren et al., 2014).

o   Organize material to highlight meaningful connections.

2.    Active Attention:

o   Eliminate distractions to improve memory encoding.

o   Process information for distinctiveness and meaning.

3.    Self-Generated Cues:

o   Create personal associations with study material for retrieval (e.g., mnemonic linking “Ruth” to nucleus as a family center, Tullis & Finley, 2018).

o   Use the encoding specificity principle: Memory improves when context at retrieval matches encoding.

The Testing Effect

• Benefits of Testing:

  • Promotes better retention than restudying (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).

  • Reduces forgetting significantly over time.

• Study vs. Testing:

  • Quizzes (without feedback) improve recall of conceptually related material more than studying alone (Thomas et al., 2020).

Spacing Effect

• Revisiting material over time aids long-term retention:

  • Spaced learning (e.g., periodic review sessions) is better than massed learning (Cepeda et al., 2006).

  • Expanding intervals between reviews is optimal for long-term memory.

Generalization of Memory

• Schema-Driven Learning:

  • Memory for new material is better when it aligns with pre-existing schemas (van Kesteren et al., 2018).

  • Students should prepare by revisiting foundational concepts before lectures.

Practical Study Techniques

1.    Before Class:

o   Read and review prior material.

o   Prepare questions on unclear concepts.

2.    During Class:

o   Take organized, selective notes.

o   Focus attention on distinctive and meaningful points.

3.    After Class:

o   Actively test knowledge through self-quizzing.

o   Engage in spaced practice.

Revision Insights

• Highly Effective Methods:

  • Testing yourself (most effective).

  • Interleaved practice and self-explanation.

• Less Useful Methods:

  • Re-reading material or summarization.

• Combining Strategies:

  • Mnemonics and testing can work together but require effort and suitable material.