Unit 3 Ap European History

📘 AP European History Study Notes — Age of Discovery → Absolutism

I. The Age of Discovery

Why Exploration Began

• 1453: Fall of Constantinople

  • Ottomans block land routes to Asia.

  • Europe now needs a sea route to Asia.

• Portuguese Advantages

  • Advanced naval technology.

  • Superior ship-building.

  • Supported by Prince Henry the Navigator

    • Wealthy noble, not an explorer.

    • Paid others to explore around Africa.

Vasco da Gama (1460–1524)

• 1497: Reached India (5 years after Columbus).

• First to sail from Portugal → India → back.

• Ended Islamic control of the Indian Ocean & spice trade.

• Starts the age of European world dominance.

• Portugal dominates Africa & Asia; Spain dominates the New World.

II. Reasons for Exploration

1. Lost land routes to India/China.

2. Europe depended on Asian luxury goods.

3. Renaissance curiosity → desire to learn/see more.

4. Spread Catholicism after Reformation losses.

5. Fame, fortune, and glory.

6. Better technology (compass, astrolabe, sextant).

Slogan: “Glory, God, Gold”

III. Spain: Columbus

• Poorly funded, risky voyages.

• Believed the world was 40% smaller (“Small World Theory”).

• 4 voyages — all failed to:

  1. Find Asia

  2. Find gold

  3. Establish a permanent colony

What Columbus DID do:

• Opened the door to European conquest of the Americas.

• Introduced African slavery to the New World.

• DNA suggests he may have been Spanish Jewish, not Italian.

IV. The Columbian Exchange

Europe (“Old World”)

Mainly positive

• Received:

  • Potatoes (Peru) → caused a population boom.

  • Corn (Mexico).

• More stable diet → rapid population growth.

Why potatoes changed Europe:

1. Easy to grow

2. Nutritious

3. Grows year-round

Americas (“New World”)

Mainly negative

• Received:

  • Horses, pigs, cattle

  • Old World diseases

• ~90% of Native Americans died, mostly from disease.

V. Europe Dominates the World (1500s)

1. “Old Imperialism” (1500–1800)

• About resource extraction and trade.

• Depended heavily on slavery.

2. Triangular Trade / Atlantic Slave Trade

• International slave trade depopulates Africa.

• Slaves → Americas

• Sugar/Rum → Europe

• Goods → Africa

3. Pedro Cabral

• Portuguese accidentally discover Brazil.

• Sparks conflict with Spain.

4. Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

• Spanish Pope divides world into two Catholic zones.

• Portugal gets Africa/Asia; Spain gets most of the Americas.

• Causes conflict with non-Catholic nations (England, Dutch)

5. Americas join Afro-Eurasian trade

• Globalization fully begins.

VI. The 1600s: Europe Advances to World Domination

Four major reasons:

1. Population explosion (from Columbian Exchange).

2. Commercial Revolution (rise of capitalism).

3. Mass poverty (90% of Europeans were poor → cheap labor).

4. Slavery (more cheap labor).

1. Population Explosion

• 1450–1550: population rises fast due to:

  • Better food (potatoes)

  • More farmers/manpower

  • More migration to New World

2. Commercial Revolution & Capitalism

• Goal: Profit.

• Leads to:

  • New middle class (bourgeoisie).

  • Birth of corporations & stock trading.

  • Investors fund exploration.

3. Massive Poverty

• Renaissance/Reformation did little to help the poor.

• Cheap labor → fuels economic growth.

4. Slavery

• Africans brought to Europe again after centuries.

• Becomes the backbone of New World economies.

VII. Absolutism

What is Absolutism?

A political system where one monarch has:

1. Complete power

2. Unlimited authority over the state

Key features:

• Centralized authority (all power under one person)

• No checks & balances

• No opposition allowed

VIII. Absolute Monarchs of Europe

1. Spain

• Greatest empire in 1500s.

• Fell quickly after the conquest of the New World.

2. France

• From Henry IV to Louis XIV (“Sun King”).

• The Bourbon Dynasty perfects absolutism.

3. Russia

• From Ivan the Terrible to Peter the Great.

• Longest era of ruthless absolutism.

• Lasts until 1917.

4. England (Failed Absolutism)

• From Henry VIII to the Glorious Revolution (1688).

• Ends with a constitutional monarchy.

IX. Causes of Absolutism

1. End of feudalism → weaker nobles

2. Monarchs gain power over nobility

3. Weakening of the Catholic Church (Reformation)

4. Better tax collection

5. Divine Right theory (“God chose the king”)

6. New World treasure makes kings rich

Also contributed:

• Brutal religious wars (e.g., 30 Years War) → people want strong rulers.

X. Spanish Absolutism

Why Spain became powerful

• Enormous wealth from the New World:

  • Mexico (Cortes)

  • Peru (Pizarro brothers)

Spain gains:

• Mountains of silver

• Potatoes

• Becomes the richest empire in Europe.

Phillip II (1527–1598)

“The Most Catholic King”

• Leader of the Spanish Habsburgs

• Took over Portugal in 1580 → controls all Iberia

Why Spain collapsed under Phillip II

1. Bad Decisions

• Squandered wealth on palaces (Escorial), wars, and poor investments

• Born wealthy (son of HRE Charles V)

2. Costly Wars

• Too many wars, too many defeats

3. Inbred Marriages

• Weak future monarchs

• Last Spanish Habsburg (Charles II) was severely deformed

Major losses:

1. Lost the War of Three Henrys (France)

2. Defeated/humiliated by Queen Elizabeth I (England)

3. Lost an 80-year war to the Dutch (Holland becomes independent)

4. Also struggled with the Ottomans

VIII. French Absolutism

1. Henry IV (Henry the Great) — A “Politique”

A politique = a leader who puts national unity above religion

Why Henry IV was important

• Ended French Wars of Religion

• Issued Edict of Nantes (1598):

  • Religious toleration for Huguenots

• “Paris is worth a Mass” (converted to Catholicism to unite France)

• United and strengthened France

• Helped the poor by lowering taxes

• Used Duke of Sully to fix taxes

• Assassinated in 1610

2. Louis XIII — “The Boy King” / “The Hunting Lodge King”

• Became king at 9; mother Marie de Medici ruled as regent

• Weak, uninterested in ruling

• Real power held by Cardinal Richelieu

Cardinal Richelieu (1624–1642)

De facto ruler of France

He strengthened the monarchy by:

1. Crushing noble power

   • Executed troublesome nobles

   • Seized noble lands

   • Created a government loyal ONLY to the king

2. Crushing Huguenots

   • Destroyed Huguenot political power at La Rochelle (1627)

3. Exiling Marie de Medici

   • Ended Medici influence in France

Richelieu’s legacy

• Set the stage for French absolutism

• Made France strong enough for Louis XIV to dominate

3. Louis XIV — “The Sun King”

Early Reign Problems

• Became king at age 5

• Richelieu dies → Cardinal Mazarin takes over

• The Fronde (1648–1653):

  • Nobles & peasants revolt against young king

  • Nearly killed Louis XIV

  • Louis grows up hating nobles & peasants

Louis XIV as an Absolutist

Royal Motto

“L’état, c’est moi” — “I am the state.”

Personality

1. Devout Catholic (anti-Protestant)

2. Distrusted nobles & peasants

3. Believed in divine right

4. Wanted to expand France’s power

Three Estates System

1st Estate: Clergy

• Tax-exempt

• Supported divine right

• Helped expel remaining Protestant Huguenots

2nd Estate: Nobility

• Mostly tax-free

• Louis XIV didn’t trust them (because of Fronde)

• Used:

  • Captive Nobility (forced to live at Versailles)

  • Nobles of the Robe (commoners he made nobles → loyal)

3rd Estate: Commoners

• 95% of population

• Paid almost all taxes

• Suffered from:

  • Taille (land tax)

  • Gabelle (salt tax)

  • Capitation (head tax)

  • Corvée (forced labor)

Louis XIV’s Domestic Policies

1. Perfected Tax Collection

• Built efficient system

• Used Intendants loyal to the king

• France divided into 32 districts

2. Strengthened Catholic Church Support

• Bishop Bossuet: divine right theorist

• Church declared king chosen by God

3. Strengthened Economy — Colbert

Colbert = Father of French Mercantilism

• State controls economy

• Export more than import

• Wealth = gold

• Goal: enrich the king

4. Crushed Huguenots

• 1685: Edict of Fontainebleau

  • Revoked Edict of Nantes

  • No tolerance for Protestants

  • Huge mistake → France loses wealthy skilled workers

5. Controlled the Nobility

• Versailles required nobles to live with him

• Spied on them, monitored loyalty

IX. Louis XIV’s Foreign Policy & Wars

1. Built Modern French Army

• 400,000–500,000 soldiers (largest in Europe)

• Best equipped; heavy use of artillery

2. Louis XIV Fought Constantly

• France at war for 30+ years of his 72-year reign

3. War of Spanish Succession (1702–1714)

• First global war

• Spanish Habsburgs die out

• Louis wants his grandson (Bourbon) to be king of Spain

Treaty of Utrecht (1713–1714)

• No clear winner

1. Bourbon grandson becomes king of Spain

2. Spain & France cannot unite

3. England “wins” → becomes Britain → major world power

Failures of Louis XIV

1. Bankrupted France

   • Too many wars

   • Palace of Versailles drained treasury

   • Too many public works projects

2. Angered Nobility

   • Nobles hated being “captives” at Versailles

3. Damaged France’s Reputation

   • Aggressive expansion frightened Europe

   • Created anti-French alliances

🇬🇧 Absolutism Fails in England

Why Did Absolutism Fail in England?

Main reason: The English people refused to accept an absolute monarchy.

1. Political Issues

• The Tudors were unpopular and seen by many as not legitimate rulers.

• English nobles frequently worked against Tudor monarchs.

• Nearly constant threat of rebellion under every Tudor ruler.

2. Religious Issues

• 1500s England = daily religious conflict.

• Under Henry VIII and Edward VI, England was officially Protestant.

  • Puritans/Calvinists were mistreated.

• Under Mary I (“Bloody Mary”), Catholics regained power briefly, persecuting Protestants.

• Religious chaos weakened the monarchy and increased unrest.

🇬🇧 Religious Strife in 1600s England (150 years of conflict)

1. Henry VIII (Reformation of 1534)

• Broke from Catholic Church for personal reasons, not religious ones.

• New “Church of England” was almost the same as Catholicism.

• Mary I later attempted to restore Catholicism — failed.

2. Elizabeth I Establishes the Anglican Church

• Act of Uniformity (1559):

  • Legally ended the Catholic Church in England.

  • Established the Anglican Church, with the queen as the leader.

• Created a new persecuted minority: English Catholics.

  • Forced underground; resentful; attempted assassination of James I later (Gunpowder Plot).

• Also opposed by Puritans (Calvinists) — political enemies of Elizabeth & James I.

Three Christian groups in 1600s England:

1. Anglicans (majority, official church)

2. Puritans/Non-conformists

3. Catholics

🇬🇧 Fall of English Absolutism → Rise of Constitutionalism

Why English monarchs were weak compared to France, Spain, Russia:

1. The Normans (1066) were foreign invaders — English nobles never fully trusted the monarchy.

2. Magna Carta (1215) limited king’s power legally.

3. Illegitimate Tudors created distrust.

4. Henry VIII destabilized the nation by destroying English Catholicism → chaos.

THE TUDORS (1485–1603)

1. Henry VII

• Took throne by killing Richard III (Battle of Bosworth).

• Nobles questioned his legitimacy.

• Used the Star Chamber to execute and intimidate enemies.

  • Secret, illegal trials → nobles hated him.

2. Henry VIII (“Wasn’t supposed to be king”)

• Obsessed with treasure and having a male heir.

• Famous Six Wives:

  1. Catherine of Aragon

  2. Anne Boleyn

  3. Jane Seymour

  4. Anne of Cleves

  5. Catherine Howard

  6. Catherine Parr

Breaks English Christians into 3 groups

1. Anglicans

2. Puritans/Non-conformists

3. Catholics

3. Edward VI (Ruled 6 years)

• Henry’s only son.

• Very weak physically but popular.

• Strengthened Protestantism.

3½. Lady Jane Grey

• “The Nine-Day Queen”

• Used politically → tragic.

• Made Mary I unpopular immediately.

4. Mary I (“Bloody Mary”)

• Oldest daughter of Henry VIII.

• Married Phillip II of Spain.

• Tried to restore Catholicism → failed.

• Very unpopular.

5. Elizabeth I (“The Virgin Queen”)

• Ruled 45 years.

• Most beloved English monarch ever.

Why she succeeded:

• Not an absolutist.

• Constantly balanced factions.

• Famous quote:
  “I have the heart and stomach of a king.”

The Elizabethan Bargain (Politique leadership)

1. Country first, religion second → gained support from both Catholics & Puritans.

2. Shared power with:

   • Privy Council (male ministers)

   • Parliament (grew powerful under Elizabeth)

Accomplishments

1. Defeated the Spanish Armada (1588) → saved England.

2. Used Shakespeare/the theater for nationalism.

3. Expanded colonies (especially Virginia → later richest colony).

🇬🇧 Failed Absolutism of the Stuarts (1603–1649)

ENGLAND’S WAR AGAINST ABSOLUTISM

I. James I (1603–1625)

From Scotland → became king after Elizabeth I.

Problems with James I

1. “A stranger in a strange land” — disliked England, English customs.

2. Believed strongly in Divine Right.

3. Hated Parliament.

4. Dissolved Parliament almost every year.

5. Angered Puritans — arrested and brutalized many.

6. Catholics hated him → Gunpowder Plot (1605) by Guy Fawkes.

7. Used Thomas Hobbes to philosophically defend absolutism (“secular absolutism”)

🇬🇧 English Civil War Summary (1639–1688)

1. Charles I (son of James I)

• Arrogant, foolish, angered everyone — especially Parliament & Puritans.

2. Bishop’s War

• Forced Scotland to use his Bible → Scotland invaded England.

• England bankrupt → Charles humiliated.

3. Parliament Strikes Back

a. “Short Parliament” (1640)

• He called them, they refused tax → he dissolved them in days.

b. “Long Parliament”

• Parliament passed a law preventing the king from dissolving them.

• Stayed in session for 20 years.

4. Civil War Begins (1642)

• Charles attempted to arrest Parliament leaders.

• Parliament built an army under Oliver Cromwell.

5. The Civil War (1642–1651)

• Cavaliers = King’s supporters.

• Roundheads = Parliament/Puritans.

• Cromwell’s New Model Army defeats Charles repeatedly.

• Charles flees → captured.

6. Charles I Betrays Cromwell

• Made a deal with Cromwell but attempted escape.

• Defeated again at the Battle of Preston.

• Cromwell decides he must die.

7. “Rump Parliament”

• Cromwell removed members who opposed executing the king.

8. Trial of Charles I (1649)

• Charged with treason → executed outside Whitehall Palace.

• Shocking moment in European history.

9. Civil War Continues (1649–1651)

• Charles II attempts to regain throne → fails.

• Cromwell invades Ireland → brutal conquest (25% Irish died).

🇬🇧 The Commonwealth (1653–1660)

Cromwell as “Lord Protector”

• Essentially a dictator.

• Enforced strict Puritan laws.

• Outlawed:

  • Dancing

  • Theater

  • Alcohol

  • Gambling

  • Christmas

England hated it.

🇬🇧 Restoration (1660)

Charles II Returns

• Parliament invited him back as a constitutional monarch.

• Could only rule with Parliament.

• Known as “The Merry Monarch” — partied constantly.

• No legitimate children → brother James II becomes king.

🇬🇧 The Glorious Revolution (1688)

Absolutism ends forever.

Why?

• Parliament refused a Catholic king.

• Fired James II, who fled to France.

• Invited Mary II (James’s Protestant daughter) & her husband William of Orange.

Result:

• William & Mary sign the English Bill of Rights.

• Parliament becomes supreme.

• Constitutional monarchy is permanent.

⭐ THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION (1688)

I. Charles II — “The Merry Monarch”

• England’s first constitutional monarch (shared power with Parliament).

• Popular, easygoing, “do-nothing” king.

• Restored fun (theater, celebrations) after the Puritan dictatorship.

II. James II — “The Unacceptable King”

• Openly Catholic, which the English Parliament refused to accept.

• Attempted to raise a Catholic dynasty → full national crisis.

III. The Glorious Revolution (1688)

1. Parliament forced James II out of power — no Catholic king allowed.

2. James II fled to France; Parliament invited:

   • Mary II (his Protestant daughter)

   • And her Dutch husband William of Orange

3. Parliament then wrote the English Bill of Rights, a world-changing document.

4. Bill of Rights results:

   • Parliament is superior to the monarchy.

   • Guaranteed rights to English citizens:

     • Freedom of speech (in Parliament)

     • Due process

     • No cruel punishments

     • No new taxes without Parliament

   • Ends absolutism forever in England.

🇳🇱 THE RISE & FALL OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC

I. The Spanish Netherlands

• Called “The Low Countries.”

• Wealthy, important but small region.

• Two cultural halves:

  • Northern Netherlands (Holland) – Dutch-speaking, Protestant.

  • Southern Netherlands (Belgium) – French/Flemish-speaking, Catholic.

• Part of the Habsburg Empire.

• Phillip II inherits it; northern Protestants dislike his distant Catholic rule.

II. The 80 Years War (1568–1648) — Dutch Independence

1. Phillip II raised taxes → Dutch refused.

2. Spanish persecution of Protestants.

3. War erupts; led by William of Orange (“The Silent”).

4. England + Sweden support the Dutch.

5. After decades of brutal conflict, the Dutch win independence.

6. Phillip II dies before the final loss — symbolic end of Spain’s dominance.

🇳🇱 III. The Dutch Golden Age (1648–1713)

1. Unique Government

• No monarchy — ruled by wealthy merchant regents.

• Very similar to Renaissance Italy’s merchant republics.

2. Amsterdam becomes Europe’s trade center

• First modern banking center.

• World’s wealthiest city for decades.

3. Dutch East India Company (VOC)

• World’s first multinational corporation.

• Dominated Asian trade and global shipping.

4. Religious Tolerance

• Tolerated Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and Jews.

• Helped attract skilled workers & merchants.

5. Dutch Golden Age Art (1648–1700)

• Style: Dutch Baroque Realism

  • Extreme realism

  • Everyday people & domestic scenes

Key Artists

• Rembrandt

  • Called “The Master.”

  • Works show Dutch civic pride and realism.

• Vermeer

  • “Girl With a Pearl Earring” = “Mona Lisa of the North.”

  • Controversial; possibly used early photographic methods.

🇳🇱 IV. Fall of the Dutch Republic (1700–1713)

Reasons for decline:

1. Fear of France

   • Spent massive money building a large army they never used.

2. Wars with Britain

   • Lost several naval wars.

   • Lost New Amsterdam, which became New York City.

3. London replaces Amsterdam

   • Becomes Europe’s banking & financial capital.

4. Over-extension

   • Too many colonies to manage (Africa, Asia, Americas).

5. Debt

   • Holland becomes bankrupt.

6. Poor economic decisions

   • Tulip Mania (1636–1637) → world’s first financial bubble.

End:

• By 1795, the Dutch Republic collapses and becomes a French colony under Napoleon.

• The region is later divided

  • Netherlands

  • Belgium

🇧🇪 Belgium After the Split

• Netherlands (Holland): Dutch-speaking, Protestant.

• Belgium: Two groups

  • Flanders (north): Dutch-speaking, Protestant

  • Wallonia (south): French-speaking, Catholic

🇷🇺 ABSOLUTISM IN RUSSIA

1. Russia’s Unique Identity

• Part European, part Asian.

• Slavic culture influenced by Byzantines (Greek/Eastern Roman).

• Religion: Eastern Orthodox Christianity, third branch of Christianity.

2. The Mongol Yoke (1240–1480)

• Mongols kept Russia in a “Dark Age”:

  • No Renaissance

  • No Reformation

  • Extremely poor and feudal

• Mongols destroyed the old capital → Moscow rises as new center.

3. Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV) — 1533–1584

Nickname: “Ivan the Fearsome”

• Unified Russia through war, terror, and brutality.

• First to take the title Czar (Tsar) = “Caesar.”

• Russia was last major country stuck in medieval feudalism.

Boyars (Russian nobles)

• Semi-independent, powerful families.

• Many had personal armies.

Ivan’s Reign of Terror

• Arrested & executed boyars.

• Destroyed remaining Mongol influence.

• Killed his own son → died without an heir.

Times of Trouble (1584–1613)

• 30 years of chaos, war, famine, and false tsars.

4. The Romanov Dynasty (1613–1917)

• Begins with Michael Romanov.

• Ivan’s last wife was a Romanov → helped claim legitimacy.

• Dynasty rules Russia for 304 years until the Russian Revolution.

🇷🇺 PETER THE GREAT (1682–1725)

I. Expansion of Russia

• West: into Europe (Poland, Baltics)

• East: into Siberia → giant empire

II. Peter’s Background

• Hardcore absolutist — zero sharing of power.

• Traveled through Holland, Germany, England:

  • Shocked by how technologically advanced the West was.

  • Realized Russia must modernize or be destroyed.

III. Why He Was “Great”

a. Westernization by force

1. Forced nobles to shave beards (“Beard Tax”)

2. Required nobles to dress Western

3. Forced nobles to learn French (elite language of Europe)

b. Brought Western experts to Russia

• Especially German scientists, teachers, engineers.

c. Controlled the Boyars

• Created the Table of Ranks:

  • Nobles must work for the state to earn status.

d. Great Northern War (1700–1721)

• Fought Sweden → won.

• Secured a warm-water port for Russia.

e. Built St. Petersburg (“Window on the West”)

• New capital city, built in a swamp.

• Gave Russia access to Europe.

• Symbol of modernization & power.

Result:

• Peter transformed Russia into a major European power.