Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.

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Studied by 11 people

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Understanding Health Communication Foundations Vocabulary

Understanding Health Communication Foundations

Cheryl Montgomery's Interview: Dr. Cheryl Montgomery, a renowned expert in environmental breast cancer research and founder/director of the Helen Montgomery Community Clinic for Breast Cancer Awareness and Prevention, is interviewed about her journey.
- Faced skepticism from a high school counselor but was encouraged by her father.
- Key figures in her life include her grandmother Helen, stepmom Sally, sibling Sam, Uncle Michael, cousin Monica, Aunt Savannah, and best friends Nathian and Liz.

Introduction to Health, Healthcare, and Health Communication

Miscommunication in Healthcare: Even seemingly simple questions can lead to misinterpretations with serious consequences.
Goals of the Book: Provide a comprehensive view of health communication research, reveal challenges in healthcare, and highlight the personal experience of health and illness.
Preventable Deaths: Competent communication is crucial in preventing illness, injury, and premature death.
Perspectives on Health: Health is more than the absence of sickness; it encompasses physical, mental, and social well-being (World Health Organization definition).
- Whole Person Health: Considers interconnected biological, behavioral, social, and environmental factors.
- Focuses on restoring health and preventing diseases across a lifespan.
- Requires promoting healthy behaviors, environments, and policies.
Individual-Level Factors: Health behaviors that affect one's risk of getting sick and potentially infecting others.
Systems-Level Factors: External influences on an individual’s health, including social, cultural, mass media, organizational, governmental, and environmental factors.
Healthcare in the United States: A mix of private and government-run providers/payers, various financing methods, and for-profit/non-profit entities, but lacks universal coverage.
- Cited quote from Henry Aaron on the administrative monstrosity of the U.S. healthcare system.
- The U.S. is the only developed nation without universal healthcare, leading to medical bankruptcies.
- Healthcare systems are evaluated based on cost, quality, and choice, with the U.S. ranking poorly in access and quality despite high spending.
- Harvard economist William Hsiao suggests that creating a national healthcare system is a moral decision.
- Concerns about American exceptionalism hindering the adoption of better healthcare models.
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A call for transformative actions to achieve global economic, social, and environmental dimensions.
- Adopted in 2015 with the goal of accomplishment by 2030.
- Communication plays an essential role in establishing, maintaining, and promoting partnerships to accomplish these goals.
- Examples include the RecyclesPay Educational Project in Nigeria, the Deqing County Rural Digital Governance System in China, the SINERGI Project in Indonesia and the TESTA program in India.
U.S. Healthy People Initiative: Began in 1979, emphasizing disease prevention and health promotion with measurable goals.
- Healthy People 2030 focuses on health equity, social determinants of health, and health literacy.
- Includes 358 core objectives across various categories with progress tracked.
- Requires individual behavior changes, healthcare provider involvement, supportive legislation, and addressing systemic discrimination.
Health Communication: Central to promoting health and preventing disease.

An Orientation to Health Communication

Origins: A special interest group in the International Communication Association (ICA) evolved into a division in 1978.
Definition of Health Communication: The study of messages that create meaning in relation to physical, mental, and social well-being.
Scope: Encompasses processes, people, goals, and channels related to health messages.
Theory: Essential for guiding research by providing an organized set of concepts and explanations about a phenomenon.
Health Belief Model (HBM): Developed in the 1950s to understand why people were not engaging in common preventive health behaviors.
- Influenced by beliefs about perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, and self-efficacy.
- Internal or external cues to action can motivate behavior.
- Example of Tim (unvaccinated and gets COVID) and Barry (vaccinated) to illustrate.
Integrated Model of Behavioral Prediction (IMBP): People’s intention to behave precedes their actual behavior, influenced by attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.
- Reflects the reasoned action approach (RAA).
- Skills and environmental constraints can moderate the intention-behavior relationship.
- Example of Jill trying to eat healthier but facing environmental constraints and lack of skills.
Communication Infrastructure Theory (CIT): An ecological model describing how communication infrastructures within neighborhoods (storytelling networks) influence health outcomes.
- Storytelling networks consist of community organizations, geo-ethnic media, and neighborhood residents.
- Communication action context describes neighborhood characteristics that promote or impede communication.
- When a communication action context facilitates a strong STN, positive health outcomes are experienced at both the individual and community level.
Digital Divide: A gap exists between people who have access to information and communication technology (ICT) and those who do not.
- Includes concerns about attitudes, motivation, knowledge, skills, frequency, purpose, and maintenance of technology.
- Jan van Dijk’s resources and appropriations theory explains how categorical inequalities and unequal distribution of technological resources lead to unequal participation in society, reinforcing inequalities.
Methods of Research:
- Quantitative methods use numerical data for statistical analysis and generalizations.
- Qualitative methods involve in-depth analysis of socially constructed meanings of language and behavior.
- Mixed-methods research combines both approaches.
Metatheoretical Paradigms:
- Scientific paradigm: Assumes one objective and independent reality.
  - Exemplar study : Facebook support group for Stage IV breast cancer patients by Nicole Kashian and Susan Jacobson (2020)
- Interpretive paradigm: Assumes multiple subjective truths.
  - Exemplar study: Identified challenges of COVID-19 preventions by Shou Zhou and colleagues (2022).
- Critical-cultural paradigm: Focuses on power and oppression.
  - Exemplar study: Black women experience pregnancy-related complications researched by Comfort Tosin Adabayo and colleagues (2022).
Multidisciplinary Research: Involves scholars from multiple disciplines independently investigating the communication dimension of a health problem.
Interdisciplinary Research: Involves collaborative investigation, with researchers bringing expertise and learning from each other.
- Example: Lauren and Allison started working together to study the communication quality of patient and family end-of-life decision making.
Research Translation: Translating study results from research contexts to practice settings to improve well-being.
Examples of Translation Research: Wayne Bearch, Erin Donovan, Mohan Dutta, Lynn Harter, Michael Hecht, Michelle Miller-Day, Janice Krieger, Rachael Record, Kami Silk, Arvind Singhal, Elaine Wittenberg, Joy Goldsmith.
Organization and Features of the Book: Six sections covering various aspects of health communication with emphasis also concerns of historically marginalized.

First Year of College Scaries

Introduction of Liz and Nathian and exploring Cheryl's introduction to stereotype threat.

Discrimination and Health Communication

Ladder of Body Hierarchy: Per Sonya Renee Taylor, societal structures teach the belief that some bodies are better than others, creating an illusionary hierarchy.
Ethical Health Communication: Strives to be anti-discriminatory by recognizing complexities of healthcare systems, contextualizing individual experiences, and recognizing systemic barriers.
Discrimination: Prejudicial treatment based on personal characteristics, negatively influencing health.
- Experiencing discrimination leads to increased risks of anxiety, depression, and substance abuse.
- Discrimination can be harmful even without direct targeting due to chronic stress.

Microaggressions

Microaggressions: Subtle verbal/nonverbal slights communicating hostile messages based on marginalized group membership.
- Can negatively impact mental health and physical health, leading to constant vigilance.

Social Determinants of Health

Social Determinants of Health: Nonmedical factors influencing health outcomes, such as conditions in which people are born, grow, work, live, and age.
- Organized into five categories: economic stability, education access and quality, healthcare access and quality, neighborhood and built environment, and social and community context.
- Communication inequalities (differences in ability to generate, disseminate, and use information) also affect health.
Health Disparities: Differences in health status between groups due to social and structural influences, closely linked with social, economic, or environmental disadvantage.
- They must be systematic, avoidable, and affecting socially disadvantaged groups.

Intersectionality

Intersectionality: How multiple social identities intersect to reflect interlocking systems of privilege and oppression, such as health disparities are exacerbated when people have membership in multiple marginalized groups (e.g., Black women).

Reducing Health Disparities and Increasing Health Equity

Requires understanding-focused and solution-focused efforts.
Effective eHealth interventions address communication inequalities, engage stakeholders, design for usability and privacy, and balance open science with group protection.
Health equity: Attainment of the highest level of health for all people, requiring ongoing societal efforts to eliminate health and healthcare disparities.
Equitable solutions distribute resources as needed for equal access to healthcare and opportunities for a healthy life.

Health Communication and Isms

Isms Distinctive practices/ideologies centering on negative attitudes toward groups differing from societal norms (e.g., racism, sexism, homophobia, ableism).
- Stem from stereotypes, fear, and ignorance, propagated often by individuals with implicit bias and the inability to acknowledge structural policies that keep particular races in poverty, that's a racist perception.
Implicit Bias: Automatic, unintentional bias affecting judgments, decisions, behaviors, playing at what Dr. Ashley has to say about racism.. Project Implicit (www.projectimplicit.net) offers self-assessment and training for reduction.
Race and Racism: Race is a social construct causing discrimination (racism). Antiracism involves correcting policies for equitable experiences, combating biases, and promoting equity.
- White Coats for Black Lives activist movement addresses intolerance of racism in healthcare and calls on everyone to combat racist assumptions.
- Patient satisfaction surveys should track experiences of and for color/race so as to ensure that they receive culturally competent care.
Sex and Sexism: Sex is biological, but gender is socially constructed. Sexism causes discrimination based on sex, negatively impacting both men's and women's health.
- Women are often viewed primarily through reproductive biology, leading to under/misdiagnosis of diseases.
- Men face consequences from masculinity norms, avoiding healthcare and engaging in risky behaviors.
- Women's Heart Alliance advocated for sex equity in research and treatment of heart disease.
- Male Breast Cancer strives to normalize the idea that men can be subjected to breast cancer.
Gender and Homophobia: Gender is a spectrum of social identifications (what people believe to be male/masculine or female/feminine). Homophobia discrimination based on gender or sexuality continues to stigmatize members of the LGBQT community, which has had a significant impact on their health!
- Human Rights Campaign maintains a helpful glossary of terms about gender to assist people in communication about gender.
Disabilities and Ableism: Ableisms stems from ideas, practices, institutions and social relations that presume ablebodiedness which then marginalize disabled people. As such, it's important to fight against biased attitudes.
- National Center for Disability, Equity, and Intersectional identifies and reduces healthcare inequities faced by the aforementioned. It has four arms and calls on everyone to ensure they welcome in members and people with disabilities.

Media Representation:

Inaccurate or unrepresentative representation perpetuates stereotypes of historically marginalized groups (Race & Enthicity, Women, Gender Identification & Disabilites) that leads to negative discrimination and microaggressions. One important is taking the time to ensure that content is accurate about cultural and historical contexts that were not typically shared before, i.e. diverse characters should be understood rather than just having the token minority character.

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