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Definitions & Ages:
The study of lifespan development is the study of aging and process of aging
Chronological age: the actual age of a person → doesn’t tell you much about a person beyond that
Biological age: refers to how healthy your body actually is; how old you feel, based on how aging process has affected your body cells, which in turn determines your physical health & longevity → better form of age
Functional age: how you function/what you do → the more you do, the more functional you are and in turn, the lower your biological & functional age, it’s about what our bodies allow us to do
Psychological age: adaptivity; your ability to adapt to new life conditions (how old do you think are? how do you think about yourself)
Periods of Development
Prenatal: conception-birth
Infancy: birth 0 to 1 years
Toddlerhood: 1-2 years
Head is too big for our body, so we toddle
We acquire language
Early childhood: 2-6 years
Acquiring language and getting better at independence
Learning to read and write
School-age: 6-12 years (socially constructed age)
School is a social construction → there are parts of the world where kids do not go to school
Adolescence: ? (socially constructed age)
Adolescence begins with puberty & it exists for all children. It ends when the individual begins to take on adult roles
Social construct that is only about one century one
Difference between adolescence & adulthood? Social construct that adolescence are expected to take on adult roles (marriage/starting own family, full-time career work)
Adulthood: ? - death
Only 1 stage for adulthood because most of the development happens during the younger years
Psychological model is very biased towards the first years of life because they believed that’s when the major changes happened
Revolution of Human Development
Traditional cultures (agriculture) differ greatly from modern industrial cultures
There was no such thing as “school age” children or adolescence because children worked all day and they were treated like adult once they had the body of an adult
The first big revolution of human development happened as a result of the agriculture movement; becoming farmers → originally started off as hunters & gatherers (dependent on herds)
Agriculture movement is noted as the beginning of civilization
The second big revolution of human development was during the industrial revolution;
We saw an increase in child labor & all the horrors of child labor (overworked children, poor conditions, dying in accidents)
With this revolution, we realized that industry is not a safe place for a child. It also showed us that we need the next generation to be able to build, engineer, and run society (the desire for an educated society increased after the industrial revolution changed society)
The “school age child” and “adolescence” was a product of this revolution
The invention of school was the invention of childhood and adolescence → you can’t have one without the other
Jean Piaget (father of developmental psychology) proposed that all people pass in a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages of cognitive development
He suggested that not only does the quantity of information increase in each stage, but the quality of knowledge & understanding also changes
Piaget suggested that human thinking is arranged into schemas/schemes: organized mental patterns that represent behaviors & actions
In infants, schemes represent concrete behavior (sucking, reaching, etc). In older children, schemes become sophisticated and abstract (the set of skills involved in riding a bike or playing a video game)
The growth in children’s understanding of the world an be explained by assimilation and accommodation:
Assimilation: using old schema (current ways of thinking & understanding the world) to interpret a new experience
Accommodation: adjusting old schemas or creating new ones (changing your existing way of thinking) to accommodate new learning & experiences
Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor: 0-2 years old
According to Piaget, the baby’s thoughts about the world are based on their senses.
At the end of this stage, they are able to think in terms of mental representations: the ability to think symbolically. They can visualize what they’re thinking about, even if that thing is not in front of them.
Reflexes → the inborn reflexes are at the center of a baby’s physical & cognitive life (ex: the sucking reflex)
Primary circular reactions → scheme reflect an infant’s repetition of interesting or enjoyable actions that focus on the infant’s own body, just for the enjoyment of doing them (infant sucking their thumb bc it’s pleasurable)
Secondary circular reactions → schema regarding actions that bring about a desirable consequence (a child who repeatedly picks up a rattle in their crib and shakes it differently to see how the sound changes each time is an example of engage in secondary circular reactions
Preoperational: 2-7 years old
Operational thinking means “thinking logically”
The right way to think is to think logically, based on rules of logic. The wrong way (preoperational thinking) is thinking that is not governed by the rules of logic that we learn to adopt & reason in school.
Two types of preoperational thinking are animistic & magical:
Animistic thinking: animating things and giving them language, consciousness, and giving them all the properties of a human being (ex: the brave little toaster)
Little children truly DO believe there are talking lions in the jungle. They animate their world by putting life into things that are not real
Magical thinking: thinking that magic actually exists (tooth fairy, easter, santa)
Preoperational thinking goes away as children begin to attend school. In non western areas of the world where children don’t go to school & learn, magical thinking persists throughout the life course
Children in this stage think egocentrically, meaning, they are limited from seeing things from another person’s POV.
Thinking becomes more categorical → this is the beginning of hierarchical classification
Increased use of language & knowledge of words
Play becomes more cooperative & social
Concrete Operational: 7-11 years old
We adopt a logical and reason based way of thinking (as opposed to sense-bound and/or magical thinking).
This is learned in the classroom and through reading books (literacy requires us to think in a logical, order-based way).
Being taught pattern-based ways of thinking becomes our dominant way of thinking
Less egocentric
There are limits in abstraction (their ability to think completely hypothetically, ex: solving for x in algebra problem)
Formal Operational: 11 years and up +
Abstract thinking
Hypothetical deductive reasoning: come up with a hypothetical scenario & eliminate possible scenarios until we come up with a solution
Symbolic/metaphorical thinking: able to understand symbols in a more formal way
Metacognition: thinking about your thinking (what type of learner am i?)
Metalinguistics: thinking about language they use (adolescents tend to invent their own slang/language)
Sarcasm & Irony
Multiple Perspective Taking: the ability to see things from other people’s perspective → this makes you more egocentric in your thinking
Egocentric Thinking
Mountain Task: the whole point of mountain task is to show that very small children are incapable of seeing things from another person’s POV
Theory of Mind - Sally/Anne Test: another part of egocentric thinking is not being able to project your POV on someone else
This test sees if a child can project mind (see things from another person’s POV) onto someone else
Modernly used for autistic children as a test to see where they’re at. Autistic children has limits in their perspective taking ability, which leads to egocentric thinking
Adolescent Egocentrism
Results from increased abstraction (seeing things from a hypothetical view), allows you to see things from another person’s perspective
Increased perspective taking causes egocentric thinking
Reflective perspective (realize that we can think about other people, but other people can also think about us) + awareness of judgmentalism (aware that other people are judging you all the time as WELL) = adolescent egocentrism
Imaginary audience: the the belief that people are thinking about you, talking you, and judging you (ex: teenage girl spending 2hrs trying to look perfect)
The flaw in this thinking is that the imaginary audience only exists for a moment, but the adolescent gets stuck in this mindset that people are always fixated on them.
Social media exacerbates the imaginary audience phenomena → the danger is that teenagers might exploit themselves to gain a greater audience
Personal fable: adolescents spend a lot of time imagining what their life will be like when they grow up, they make the mistake of not realizing that their personal fable is just a fantasy and not destiny
Adolescents create a story with a beginning, unknown middle, and successful end
They feel like no one understands them because no one understands the personal fable they’ve created for themselves
The Predestined fate: the idea that if you have a personal fable, and the end is a wonderful ending, then nothing bad could ever possibly happen to you (because it’s not apart of the story you’ve created in your mind)
ex: drinking and driving, teen pregnancy, addiction WILL not happen, because they’re not in your personal fable
This is dangerous because most adolescent deaths are caused by unintentional injury
Sucidice can be related to the personal fable & predestined fate because if what they had planned to happen in their story, doesn’t happen, there is no hope & all bad things are going to happen
A ritual is a traditional symbolic practices is or once was associated with a cultural myth
Rituals integrate us with the supernatural & they teach us what it means to be human
Living rituals: rituals that are still connected with their cultural myth (people still do them and they know WHY they’re doing”
Passover
Christian Mass
Easter (Resurrection for Christians & Easter Bunny in Spring for Pagans)
Dead myth: example is The Last Supper (rendition of Jesus’s last supper)
Dead rituals: rituals that we don’t know why we do anymore (the myth that was associated with them no longer exists or we don’t believe it anymore
Halloween (celebrating the beginning of the end of the fertile season
Knocking on wood (people used to believe every tree had a spirit, and knocking might help invoke that spirit to help make their wish come true)
Dead myths: old pagan beliefs were combined with Christian rituals (in Europe, when Christianity was brought by the Romans)
Example of dead myths is the origin of Halloween traditions
Rites of Passage
Arnold van Gennep wrote Rites of Passage
Liminal rituals: rituals where we celebrate, justify, or acknowledge a rite of passage → a ritual where we pass from one stage of life into another
Three types of rites: preliminal, liminal, postliminal
Preliminal: rites of separation
Some birth rites are cleaning rituals where we cleanse the babies (circumcision & christening)
Mana: anything that has magical/spiritual power → some people believe the placenta & umbilical cord is magical, so they eat it or grow it. Some also save it in case it's needed one day to help regrow cells
Childhood rites
Saving the hair of a child’s first haircut or not cutting it at all
Bronzing a babies shoes
Saving baby teeth → the tooth fairy comes along
Liminal: rites of transition & initiation
Female circumcision aka female genital mutilation. Primarily associated the the muslim faith
Male adolescent circumcision (foreskin) is more common
Pubertal rites for females
The Dipo Ceremony of East Ghana
Rites of passage for females tend to be less gory, violent, and painful. For men, it is seen as a conquest and not associated with and discomfort like it is for women (menstruation, pregnancy)
Bat Mitzvah for Jewish girls
Confirmation or 1st Communion for Catholics (both girl & boy)
Pubertal rites for males
Males have to prove that they’re worthy of going through this transition, so they have to show that they’re brave and strong
Bar Mitzvah for males
Body changing rituals: rites of transformation
When your body changes from child to adult, you are a new person. There are a lot rituals that symbolize death of a child and birth of an adult
Body changing rituals symbolize the death of the old person by showing bodily changes (primitive cultures)
Tattoos and piercings can symbolize the same thing
Mortification rituals: a ritual that tells a story of someone who dies and is reborn
The point is to show the death of the child and the rebirth of the soul in a young male. “Death is painful”
Often scarred or tattooed
Quest & Ordeal Rites:
Moment of great pain and then you got into an imaginative state where they have a vision and come out as what they say
You can take a drug and go into a hallucinogenic vision question and come back and talk to the shaman about what you saw
Hazing Rituals: rituals to declare you’re not a child, but a young man/woman who is willing to overcome certain ordeals
Have to do with some type of physical punishment or embarrassment to show how committed you are
Incorporation Ceremonies
Hazing can be incorporated into incorporation ceremonies which are about becoming members of a new society (army) and embracing a new identity
Quincenaroa, Sweet 16, Debutante balls represent the transition to womanhood
Commencement ceremonies are a rite of passage (a beginning of something new)
Cleaning rituals: you cleanse yourself/body of some type of impurity
The physical cleansing can sometimes be associated with spiritual messages or visions
Baptism is an example of this (water cleansing the impurities within)
Weddings: rite of passage where you go from a girl to a woman becoming sexual and going on to become a mother
The long white gown: color symbolize purity and virginity
Men walking daughter the aisle: symbolizes transfer of ownership
A Jewish wedding contract is officially signed to, to show transfer of ownership on paper
Standing over a huppa represents the house where the children are going to be born. The man breaks the class to demonstrate the breaking of the hymen (breaking of the thing that cannot be unbroken)
Breaking of the hymen provides men with the certainty of knowing his children are indeed, his children
Taking the garter off represents the loss of fertility
Marriage is a marriage of not just two peoples but two families. A lot of the symbolism has to do with family, fertility, and the home.
Throwing rice is a symbol of fertility
Lifting of the wedding veil symbolizes virginity, humility, and modesty. So only the groom is allowed to life the veil
Tying the knot & wedding ring represent eternity and the fact that these two people are tied together forever. The marriage license is a legal binding affair
Eating from the same plate and cup represents the binding once again
Bedding Ceremony: Bride & Groom Consummation Confirmation Ritual
Family watch the bride and groom have sex
Postliminal rites: rites of departure (leaving something behind)
The rites associated with death (our soul lives on)
Catholics make a last confessions
Chaplains go into gunfire to give last rites to men dying on the battlefield because our souls live forever, so they need special care
Funerals
Tombs & pyramids were built so ancestors souls could reach the stars
Vikings set their ancestors away on a burning boat (slide 42), sailing west towards “the land of the dead”
Funeral pyre: dead are set a fire
Sati: women throw themselves on the fire of their burning husbands
Catholics have cities of dead people (caverns and cathedrals filled with skulls). They also burn ashes and pick through the bones
Pennies or silver coins were put on the eyes of the dead – once the body is dead, it’s worthless
Mummification
Chinese Terracotta soldiers were buried with the ancient chinese emperor so he could enter the after life with his army
Bob Sternberg’s Theory of Love
The three qualities of love are intimacy (emotional), passion (physical), commitment (interpersonal)
Sternberg says every type of love relationship has 1, 2, or all 3 qualities of love, so you can create seven differents type of love relationships based on the qualities of love it has
Liking: intimacy, but no passion or commitment → friendships
Infatuation: passion is present (lust or desire), but no commitment or emotional intimacy → crushes, hookups/one night stands
Empty love: commitment, but no passion or intimacy → dead marriage (a relationship founded on intimacy and passion, but goes away after time, yet the couple remains married for other reasons), arranged marriages, marriages of convenience (for money, citizenship, etc)
Romantic love: passion and intimacy, but no commitment → limerence/courting stage
Fatuous love: passion & commitment, but intimacy → whirlwind marriages (getting married in vegas), shotgun wedding (passion for one night leading to pregnancy and therefore commitment)
Companionate love: commitment and intimacy, but no passion → elderly couples, family members, best friends, pets
Consummate love: passion, intimacy, and commitment → marriages
Consummate means something is full or complete. The verb means to have sex (consummate a marriage)
In an arranged marriage, commitment comes first, passion, and then intimacy
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Model
Stage One: Trust vs Mistrust (broadening of freud's model)
Our relationship as infants is with our primary caregiver. Infants are helpless and all they have is a sense of trust that someone will care for them.
Secondary mistrust: If a baby is neglected or abandoned, a sense of mistrust is likely to arise. This leads to a general mistrust of everyone and everything, not even yourself. There is a healthy sense of mistrust
Mutual regulation occurs between the infant and the caregiver → there is an identity developing in the infant that they cannot yet express, but their identity and development is based on the goals of the parent
Stage Two: Autonomy vs. Doubt & Shame
Corresponds with Freud's anal stage → if the issue is control and who has it, an anal retentive personality would be someone who needs a high level of control. An anal expulsive person would need very little
Erikson said that during toddlerhood, the child is trying to develop a sense of autonomy and identity (i can do things on my own) → sometimes parents discourage this by saying no! We want them to have autonomy, but if they are doing something unsafe or unwise, we want them to feel doubt and shame (hurting someone or doing something bad)
In each of these stages, there is 1 thing vs another
Identity crisis: time where you have to make a choice
Stage Three: Initiative vs Guilt (Freud’s Phallic Stage)
Erikson theorized phallic stage and the oedipus complex and made it about a simple progression of the identity
If the oedipus complex ends with a child that has a balanced ego, let’s focus on that.
Initiative is the will to be one’s self → not doing it bc I can, but doing things to show who you are
What is the difference between guilt and shame? Guilt is a more developed sense of doubt and shame (which is something that exists when we get caught). Guilt can develop even when we’re not caught, it’s more self conscious
Stage Four: Industry vs Inferiority (Freud’s Latency Period)
The child develops a sense of pride in their work and we don’t want them to feel inferior (inferiority complex)
We all have a sense of inferiority in certain areas, so we compensate by focusing on our strengths. We strive for a sense of balance
If you have to work all the time to feel good, you aren’t accepting yourself as a human being and only accepting yourself as a human doing (workaholism)
Mutual regulation is still going on → parenting goes on for school age children
Showing a love conditionally teaches a child to only love a part of themselves and not accepting their whole selves, but only a part of their selves (unconditional positive regard is what we should get from our parents and eventually what we should give ourselves)
Stage Five: Identity vs Identity Diffusion
Eikson’s search for identity: adolescence was primarily about discovering one’s own sense of identity through some type of work or career (we are what we do)
Marcia’s identity statuses: 1) Foreclosure 2) Moratorium 3) Diffusion 4) Achievement
Foreclosure: deciding your future career well ahead of the time that you can have any informed consent about it → our parents fix it in our heads that we’re going to be ____ and we accept it
The danger is waking up and realizing you hate what you do, but it's too late to start all over
Foreclosure has been a part of life (with hunters and gatherers, there was no career search or choice, you did what was expected of you. Choosing another path could be seen as selfish of you)
Mortatium: a time to explore oneself, time in playing the game of figuring out your strengths, interests, and abilities (college is the perfect time for this because it forces you to take a variety of different courses)
Diffusion: no sense of identity achievement, no process of active exploration, and no sense of foreclosure (absence of all other 3 things) → this is a time of putting things off
Danger is that a person could become stuck here without any direction
Achievement: a sense of “this is where i am going”, we’re looking ahead → doesn’t mean we’ve achieved the dream, but we are moving towards achieving the dream
We’re all always dealing these stages, it’s not like you move from one to the other
Stage Six: Intimacy vs Isolation
Intimate, disclosure
Intimacy comes from communication. Isolation is the opposite of intimacy, which occurs when people are not open about their feelings.
Getting too close in a relationship can lead to losing yourself in a relationship. The natural reaction is distance: distanitation. Keeping a sense of self (own hobbies, friends, etc) is how you prevent this from happening
We form romantic relationships that are going to support us for the rest of our lives. Women tend to put stage six ahead of stage 5 (criticism made by carol gilligan). In the 21st century however, women and women are on the same level when it comes to this
Stage Seven: Generativity vs Stagnation
Takes place during midlife, so it is referred to as the midlife identity crisis
We are not young anymore → can leads to behaviors of regression (acting younger)
Transition of persona (moving from the mentees to the mentor)
Generativity could also mean changing things to better align with one’s identity
Responsibility: our actions effect other people
Erikson goes beyond Freudian theory (he had 5 and Erikson had 7)
We continue to develop throughout the lifespan
Stage Eight: Integrity vs Despair
When we look back and reflect on our life
What's the difference between regret and despair? Regret is inevitable, if you don’t have any, you haven’t lived life enough (taken enough chances)
Integrity is the author of your life story
Child Abuse
Neglect is the most common form of child abuse → emotional abuse, physical abuse, and sexual abuse (is the least reported)
Risk factors associated with abusive parents are 1) being a teen parent or young parent, due to the stress 2) intergenerational trauma (same behaviors gets passed down and repeated) 3) substance abuse 4) low economic status 5) divorce 6) marital conflict
The evocative effect: the belief that certain children evoke hostile treatment (children who are incredibly annoying or stressful) → these tend to be children with special needs/disabilities
Misattributions are mistakes made in attributing someone’s behavior (if a child is not doing their HW the parent will make an attribution that the child is not doing their homework because they’re lazy!
Parental stress
Conduct Problems: Externalizing Disorders
ODD (oppositional defiant disorder): a defiant and oppositional child
A proper diagnosis requires the child being defiant both at home and school in order to make sure it’s not a problem with the person or relationship
Conduct disorder: the child is not only defiant, but it also doing physical harm
Conduct disorder is planned out behavior without feeling bad about things
On the path towards becoming a psychopath → doing things in a “business” like way
Includes dangerous behavior, bullying (with weapons like knives)
Red flags = animal abuse/torture and vandalism → associated with inner anger and hostility
Examples of conduct disorder: rape, drugs and abuse
The two types of conduct disorder are childhood onset (before 10) and adolescent onset (after 10)
A typical diagnosis for a young child would be ODD instead of conduct disorder (a young child isn’t planning out their violence or using weapons)
If a child receives the diagnosis for ODD or has all the symptoms, if the child later on gets diagnosed with conduct disorder, this would be considered childhood onset → because the symptoms were there before age 10
If symptoms present AFTER age 10, this is adolescent onset
Why do the two types of conduct disorder exist? What makes them different?
Terry Moffit’s Dual Path Model of Delinquency: there are two patterns of a delinquency
Adolescent limited pattern: a child with no problems at all who begins getting in trouble with delinquency once adolescence hits. after adolescence, they no longer get in trouble and are considered delinquent
Status offenses: young people wanting to do things that adults do → they rebel against a structure that doesn’t consider them children nor adults
They want to drink, smoke, and have sex, but since they are considered children, they can’t have that freedom
Life course persistent pattern: someone who has problems throughout the life
Aggression towards violent behavior, bullying, abuse, drug usage and dealing
May start as ODD and a learning disorder (ADHD)
Antisocial personality disorder
What are the gender differences in the diagnosis of conduct disorder?
4:1 female ratio → mainly in boys
Girls tend to engage in relational aggression, which is emotional bullying (cyberbullying, spreading rumours, name calling)
