Rhetorical Devices List
Rhetorical Devices
1. Anecdote
A brief, revealing story or tale told by a character or narrator in a piece of literature. Anecdotes are often used to illustrate a point, support an argument, or add a personal touch. They can reveal character, establish tone, or provide background information.
Example: In a speech about perseverance, a speaker might share a short story about their own struggles and eventual success in a difficult project.
How to Identify: Look for short, usually personal or experiential stories inserted into a larger narrative or discussion, often introduced with phrases like "I remember when…" or "A curious thing happened to me…"
2. Perspective
A character's unique view of the situation, events, or other characters in the story. It is shaped by their experiences, beliefs, values, and emotional state. This is distinct from point of view, which refers to the narrative vantage from which the story is told.
Example: Two characters witnessing the same event might have vastly different perspectives due to their personal histories or current emotional states.
How to Identify: Pay attention to the language a character uses, their internal thoughts, feelings, and interpretations, as these reveal their individual understanding and bias towards events.
3. Aphorism
A concise, pointed statement designed to make a philosophical point or illustrate a commonly held belief or moral principle. Aphorisms are often memorable, succinct, and intended to convey a general truth or wisdom.
Example: Benjamin Franklin's well-known phrase "Early to bed and early to rise/Make a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." Another example: "Actions speak louder than words."
How to Identify: Look for short, pithy statements that express a widely accepted truth, a general principle, or a piece of advice, often standing alone or set apart for emphasis.
4. Contradiction
A direct opposition or inconsistency between two statements, ideas, or elements within a text. It occurs when two things presented as true cannot logically coexist.
Example: A character who claims to love animals but regularly participates in hunting activities presents a behavioral contradiction.
How to Identify: Look for conflicting statements made by a character or narrator, or for actions that are inconsistent with stated beliefs or established facts within the narrative.
5. Apostrophe
A figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses an absent person, an inanimate object, or an abstract quality as if it were present and capable of understanding. It is often used to express intense emotion.
Example: "Oh, Death, be not proud" (John Donne). Another example: a character yelling at the storm, "Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks!" (Shakespeare, King Lear).
How to Identify: Look for direct addresses to something or someone not physically present, often marked by the exclamation "O" or a direct vocative (e.g., "You, sun!").
6. Oxymoron
A figure of speech that deliberately combines two apparently contradictory terms or elements to create a striking or paradoxical effect. The juxtaposition reveals a deeper truth or creates a specific imagery.
Example: Phrases like "jumbo shrimp," "deafening silence," "bitter sweet," or "living dead."
How to Identify: Look for two words placed side-by-side that seem to contradict each other in meaning, often acting as an adjective and a noun, or an adverb and an adjective.
7. Allusion
A figure of speech that makes a brief, often indirect or casual reference to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical figure, event, or object. Allusions enrich the text by creating resonance in the reader or applying symbolic meaning to the referenced character or object.
Example: In John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men, the surname of the protagonist, George Milton, alludes to John Milton, author of Paradise Lost, foreshadowing George's eventual loss of the dream to share a small ranch with Lennie.
How to Identify: Look for brief, unexplained references to well-known cultural touchstones (e.g., Greek mythology, Shakespeare plays, historical events, biblical stories). The reader is expected to recognize the reference and its associated meaning.
8. Syllogism
A form of deductive reasoning where a conclusion is drawn from two premises (a major and a minor premise). It's a structured logical argument that moves from general statements to a specific conclusion.
Example: "All men are mortal (major premise). Socrates is a man (minor premise). Therefore, Socrates is mortal (conclusion)."
How to Identify: Look for a three-part logical argument composed of a general statement (major premise), a specific statement falling under the general one (minor premise), and a conclusion derived necessarily from the first two.
9. Satire
A literary style or genre that employs humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize human folly, vice, stupidity, or societal problems and institutions. The aim is often to provoke change or reform.
Example: Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal," which sarcastically suggests eating Irish babies to solve poverty, is a famous example of biting political satire.
How to Identify: Recognize humor, exaggeration, parody, or irony used in a critical way to lampoon or expose perceived flaws in individuals, society, or political systems.
10. Bildungsroman
A specific genre of novel or story that focuses on the moral, psychological, spiritual, or social growth and education of the main character, from youth to adulthood. It's often referred to as a "coming-of-age" story.
Example: Charles Dickens' Great Expectations depicts Pip's transformation from a young boy to a gentleman, detailing his experiences and evolving moral compass. J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye is another example focusing on Holden Caulfield's journey.
How to Identify: The narrative chronicles a protagonist's journey from childhood/adolescence to maturity, highlighting their personal development, learning experiences, and struggles with identity.
11. Devices
An overarching term referring to any specific word pattern, combination of words, literary technique, or structural element utilized by an author in a literary work to evoke a desired effect, incite a specific reaction from the reader, or achieve an artistic purpose.
Example: All figures of speech (metaphor, simile, personification), narrative techniques (foreshadowing, flashback), and structural choices (chapter breaks, point of view) can be considered literary devices.
How to Identify: When analyzing text, any deliberate choice made by the author in language, structure, or narrative that contributes to meaning, style, or effect is a device.
12. Foil
A character who, by contrast, highlights the distinctive qualities and characteristics of another character, generally the protagonist. The stark differences between the foil and the protagonist serve to emphasize the protagonist's traits.
Example: In the Harry Potter series, Draco Malfoy serves as a foil to Harry, highlighting Harry's humility and moral choices through Draco's arrogance and prejudice.
How to Identify: Look for two characters (or sometimes even settings or objects) who are presented in stark contrast to each other, where one's attributes make the other's more prominent or understandable.
13. Epistolary
A literary piece (a novel or story) that is composed of or conducted through a series of documents, typically letters, but can also include diary entries, journal logbooks, emails, or newspaper clippings. This format can offer intimate insights into characters' thoughts.
Example: Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1740) is an early epistolary novel told entirely through letters. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein also uses an epistolary frame narrative.
How to Identify: The narrative is presented as a collection of correspondence or documents written by the characters, rather than a continuous narrative by a single narrator.
14. Epitaph
A brief phrase or statement written in praise or memory of a deceased person, often inscribed on their tombstone or memorial. It serves as a lasting tribute.
Example: "Here lies one whose name was writ in water" (John Keats' self-proposed epitaph).
How to Identify: Look for short, commemorative inscriptions, typically found on graves, honoring the dead.
15. Parody
A satirical imitation of a work of art (such as a book, film, music, or style of writing) that exaggerates its distinctive features or subject matter for comic effect, ridicule, or criticism. It relies on the audience's familiarity with the original.
Example: Don Quixote by Cervantes parodies traditional chivalric romances. Many sketch comedy shows (e.g., Saturday Night Live) frequently use parody to mock popular culture.
How to Identify: Recognize an exaggerated or humorous imitation of a well-known original work, artist, or genre, where key stylistic elements are mimicked and distorted for comedic or critical purposes.
16. Delayed Sentence
Also known as a periodic sentence, this is a sentence that postpones its main idea, independent clause, or predicate until the very end. It builds suspense, creates emphasis, or adds rhetorical force as the reader awaits the primary point.
Example: "Just as he bent to tie his shoe, a car hit him." (The main idea "a car hit him" comes last). Another example: "With a loud thump, a sudden flash of lightning, and the smell of ozone, the machine came to life."
How to Identify: The main point or independent clause of the sentence is withheld until the very end, preceded by a series of subordinate clauses or phrases that build up to it.
17. Sarcasm
A sharp, bitter, and often sneering remark characterized as a form of verbal irony. Apparent praise or a polite statement is actually used to express contempt, ridicule, or harsh criticism, often with an intention to wound.
Example: A coach remarking to a player who misses an easy ball, "Nice catch." Or, if it's pouring rain, someone saying, "What lovely weather!
The audience fully understands that the speaker means the exact opposite."How to Identify: Look for verbal irony (saying the opposite of what's meant) delivered with a contemptuous, mocking, or sneering tone, often implied through context or intonation in spoken language.
18. Expletive
In rhetorical terms, an expletive is a single word or short phrase that interrupts normal sentence flow primarily to add emphasis to surrounding words. These are commonly set off by commas and do not carry significant semantic meaning themselves, but enhance rhetorical effect.
Example: Phrases like "in fact," "of course," "after all," "certainly," "indeed," "I mean," "you know." "The report was, in fact, a total fabrication."
How to Identify: Look for short, often parenthetical words or phrases that can be removed from a sentence without altering its core meaning, but which serve to add emphasis, transition, or a conversational rhythm.
19. Irony
A literary device characterized by a significant discrepancy or incongruity between what is expected or understood and what actually occurs or is meant. Irony often involves a twist, a reversal, or an unexpected outcome, and can be humorous, tragic, or thought-provoking.
Example: It is ironic when a fire station burns down. Verbal irony: A character says, "Oh, fantastic!" when something terrible has just happened.
How to Identify: Look for a striking contrast or discrepancy between appearance and reality, expectation and outcome, or what is said and what is truly meant.
20. Eulogy
A formal speech or written piece in high praise of a person or thing, particularly an oration delivered in honor of someone who has passed away. It aims to commend the deceased's character and achievements.
Example: A funeral speech delivered by a family member or friend, highlighting the positive qualities and accomplishments of the deceased.
How to Identify: Look for a formal, often public, expression of praise for someone, especially following their death, focusing on their virtues and positive contributions.
21. Paradox
A statement that, despite seeming self-contradictory or absurd on the surface, expresses a deeper truth or possible reality upon closer examination. It challenges conventional thought.
Example: "Less is more." "I must be cruel to be kind." (Shakespeare, Hamlet). Or, "The only constant is change."
How to Identify: Look for a statement that presents conflicting ideas or an apparent contradiction but, when considered, reveals a valid or profound insight.
22. Epiphany
A sudden, profound, and often life-altering realization, insight, or perception into the reality or essential meaning of something. It is typically triggered by a simple, everyday experience or occurrence, leading to a moment of significant understanding or change.
Example: A character might have an epiphany about the true nature of love while watching a seemingly ordinary interaction between strangers.
How to Identify: A character experiences an abrupt moment of clarity, realization, or spiritual awakening that dramatically shifts their understanding or perspective on a situation, themselves, or the world.
23. Onomatopoeia
A word that phonetically imitates, resembles, or suggests the sound that it describes. The sound of the word literally signifies its meaning, creating a vivid auditory experience for the reader.
Example: Words like "buzz," "hiss," "meow," "bang," "sizzle," "cuckoo," or "splash."
How to Identify: Look for words whose pronunciation directly suggests the sound they are referring to.
24. Diction
The deliberate choice and use of words and phrases in speech or writing, carefully selected by an author to convey a specific tone, mood, or effect. Diction influences the style and helps establish the narrative's voice.
Example: An author might use formal diction (e.g., "commence," "perceive") in an academic essay but informal diction (e.g., "start," "see") in a casual conversation.
How to Identify: Analyze the specific vocabulary an author employs. Consider if the words are formal or informal, technical, archaic, poetic, simple, or complex, and how these choices contribute to the overall message and mood.
25. Utopia
An imaginary place, state, or condition of ideal perfection, particularly in laws, government, and social conditions. It represents a seemingly perfect society, though often this perfection comes with an underlying cost.
Example: Thomas More's Utopia describes an island society with perfectly ordered social, political, and religious customs. This is contrasted with a dystopia, such as George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, which represents an imaginary location where individuals live dehumanized and oppressive lifestyles.
How to Identify: Look for descriptions of a society or place presented as flawless or near-perfect, often emphasizing communal harmony, advanced technology, or equitable social structures, though typically highlighting inherent contradictions.
26. Hyperbole
An extreme overstatement characterized by exaggerated language that is not meant to be taken literally, used for emphasis, dramatic effect, or humor. It is a deliberate exaggeration to create a strong impression.
Example: "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse." Or, "I have a million things to do today."
How to Identify: Look for statements that are obviously and intentionally exaggerated, often to the point of absurdity, used to stress a point or evoke a strong feeling rather than to state a literal truth.
27. Deus ex machina
(Latin for "god from the machine") Originally in Greek theatre, this referred to the literal lowering of a god onto the stage to resolve an impossible plot situation. In modern literature, it refers to the sudden, improbable, or contrived introduction of an artificial device, character, or event to resolve a difficult or otherwise unsolvable plot problem unexpectedly.
Example: In a story where the protagonist is trapped with no escape, a long-lost relative suddenly appears with the exact unique skill needed for rescue.
How to Identify: An unforeshadowed, improbable, or artificial event or character suddenly appears to resolve a seemingly insurmountable conflict, often feeling like a convenient shortcut rather than a logical progression of the plot.
28. Antagonist
The character or force in a literary work that actively opposes or creates conflict for the main character (the protagonist). The antagonist can be another character, a force of nature, society, an internal struggle, or even fate.
Example: Lord Voldemort is the primary antagonist in the Harry Potter series, opposing Harry's goals. In Ernest Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea, the marlin and the sharks serve as antagonists.
How to Identify: The character or element that creates the primary conflict, obstacle, or opposition that the protagonist must face and overcome.
29. Analogy
A comparison between two distinctly different things that share some similar characteristics or relationships, typically used to explain or clarify an unfamiliar or abstract concept by likening it to a more familiar one. Both metaphors and similes are types of analogy.
Example: "Life is like a box of chocolates—you never know what you're gonna get." (Simile, a type of analogy). "Just as a caterpillar transforms into a butterfly, so too must individuals embrace change to achieve personal growth" (extended analogy).
How to Identify: Look for extended comparisons (beyond a simple simile or metaphor) that draw parallels between two generally unlike things to explain or illustrate a concept or idea more clearly.
30. Inductive
A reasoning process or approach that moves from specific observations or insights about particular instances or parts of a class to form broader generalizations or conclusions about the whole class. Inductive reasoning often involves making predictions based on patterns, but its conclusions are not necessarily certain.
Example: "Every swan I have observed has been white; therefore, all swans must be white." (This conclusion, while generalized from observations, can be disproven by a single black swan).
How to Identify: Reasoning that begins with specific details, examples, or observations and then builds towards a general principle or conclusion; often involves pattern recognition and probability rather than certainty.
31. Nostalgia
A sentimental yearning or wistful affection for the past, typically for a period or place with happy personal associations. It involves a longing to return in thought or fact to an earlier time or condition.
Example: A character reminiscing fondly about their childhood home and playing with friends many years ago, feeling a pang of wistfulness for that lost era.
How to Identify: Look for descriptions of characters or narrators expressing a deep, often bittersweet, longing for past times, places, or experiences.
32. Chiasmus
A figure of speech in which the order of words or grammatical structure in the first of two parallel clauses is inverted in the second clause. This reversal creates a symmetrical and often memorable statement.
Example: T. S. Eliot's question: "Has the Church failed mankind, or has mankind failed the Church?" (A-B, B-A structure). Another example: "Never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you."
How to Identify: Look for two related clauses where the words or grammatical elements from the first clause are repeated in the second, but in reverse order.
33. Thesis
The central, unifying argument or focus statement of an essay, research paper, or other piece of analytical writing. It functions as the premise upon which the entire viewpoint or discussion of the essay is built and is typically presented early in the text.
Example: In an essay arguing for stricter gun control, a thesis might be: "To reduce gun violence effectively, federal legislation must implement universal background checks and ban assault weapons."
How to Identify: A clear, concise, and arguable statement, usually one sentence long, found at the beginning of an essay, which presents the main argument or controlling idea that the rest of the text will support and develop.
34. Antithesis
The deliberate juxtaposition of sharply contrasting ideas, often expressed in a balanced or parallel grammatical structure. It creates a striking opposition that emphasizes distinctions or creates a sense of tension.
Example: "Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant leap for mankind." (Neil Armstrong). "To err is human, to forgive divine." (Alexander Pope).
How to Identify: Look for two contrasting ideas or statements placed side-by-side or in close proximity, often articulated with parallel phrasing, to highlight their opposition.
35. Litote
A form of understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite (the contrary). It is used for emphasis or intensity, often creating an ironic effect or softening a statement.
Example: "She is not a bad cook" (meaning she is a good cook). Thoreau's "No man ever followed his genius until it misled him" (meaning genius often misleads).
How to Identify: Look for phrases that use a double negative or explicitly negate the opposite of what is meant, thereby affirming it through understatement.
36. Doppelganger
(German for "double-goer") The ghostly counterpart, mysterious double, or alter ego of a living person. In literature, a doppelganger often represents a hidden or darker aspect of a character's personality, a premonition of death, or a divided self.
Example: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Often seen in psychological thrillers, where a character encounters someone who looks exactly like them, prompting questions about identity and sanity.
How to Identify: A character encountering an exact look-alike or a symbolic twin, often leading to themes of dual identity, fate, or psychological conflict.
37. Zeugma
A figure of speech in which a single word (typically a verb or an adjective) applies to two or more other words in a sentence, often in different and sometimes contrasting senses (literal and figurative), thereby linking disparate ideas.
Example: "She broke his car and his heart." "He held his breath and the door." "You are free to execute your laws, and your citizens."
How to Identify: A single verb or adjective governs multiple clauses or objects, sometimes metaphorically and sometimes literally, creating a clever and often humorous connection between them.
38. Ethos
In rhetoric, ethos refers to the moral element influencing a character's actions or the ethical appeal used to persuade an audience. It establishes the speaker's credibility, character, and trustworthiness. In dramatic literature, it influences a character's actions more than their thoughts or emotions.
Example: A doctor endorsing a health product uses scientific expertise to establish ethos. In literature, a character known for honesty and integrity would often make decisions guided by ethos.
How to Identify: The appeal relies on the speaker's or author's credibility, good character, or moral authority to convince the audience. Look for elements that build trust and reliability.
39. Propaganda
Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote or publicize a particular political cause, point of view, or institution. It is deliberately spread to aid or injure a person, group, or institution by manipulating public opinion.
Example: Wartime posters urging citizens to conserve resources or to distrust the enemy.
How to Identify: Information (often political) that is intentionally one-sided, emotionally charged, and designed to influence opinions or behavior, sometimes by distorting facts or appealing to prejudice.
40. Didactic
Describes literature, art, or texts that are intended primarily for teaching, particularly to impart moral instruction, philosophical truth, or practical knowledge. The primary purpose is to instruct or educate rather than merely to entertain.
Example: Fables like Aesop's Fables, which explicitly end with a moral lesson.
How to Identify: The text's overriding purpose is to teach a lesson, convey a moral, or provide instruction, often through explicit statements of principle or allegorical storytelling.
41. Formal Language
Language characterized by a lofty, dignified, and impersonal tone. It adheres to grammatical rules, uses sophisticated vocabulary, and avoids contractions or slang. It is often used in academic, legal, or professional contexts.
Example: A scientific research paper or a legal document uses formal language, whereas a casual text message does not.
How to Identify: Look for elevated vocabulary, complex sentence structures, an objective tone, and strict adherence to grammatical conventions, often used for serious or professional subjects.
42. Allegory
A narrative form in which characters, typically personifications of abstract qualities, and actions within a story represent or symbolize ideas, events, or moral principles that extend beyond the literal surface meaning. It often conveys a moral or political message.
Example: George Orwell's Animal Farm is an allegory for the Russian Revolution, where animals represent different historical figures and groups.
How to Identify: The story, its characters, and events have a symbolic, secondary meaning beyond their literal interpretation, functioning as an extended metaphor for a more abstract concept or real-world event.
43. Abstract
Refers to concepts, qualities, or ideas that are not tied to physical, concrete attributes or specific sensory experiences. Abstract terms represent intangible things that cannot be directly perceived by the five senses, focusing on ideas rather than physical properties.
Example: Words like "love," "freedom," "justice," "beauty," "truth." These are ideas, not physical objects.
How to Identify: Look for words or ideas that refer to concepts, qualities, or emotions that cannot be touched, seen, heard, smelled, or tasted, focusing on the intangible.
44. In medias res
(Latin for "in the midst of things") A literary technique where the narrative begins not at the beginning of the story, but rather at some crucial point in the middle of the action. Prior details are then revealed through exposition, flashbacks, or characters' dialogue.
Example: Homer's Odyssey begins with Odysseus already on his journey home, with much of his earlier adventures recounted through flashbacks.
How to Identify: The story opens abruptly, plunging the reader immediately into significant action, with background information and preceding events revealed later in the narrative.
45. Colloquial
Refers to the use of ordinary, informal language, expressions, or vernacular found in everyday speech. It includes slang, regionalisms, and idiomatic phrases specific to a particular geographical area or social group.
Example: Depending on the region, a sandwich might be called a "sub," "grinder," "hoagie," or "hero." Similarly, phrases like "gonna," "wanna," or "y'all" are colloquial.
How to Identify: Look for informal words, phrases, or slang that are characteristic of casual conversation and specific to a certain region, time period, or social group.
46. Isocolon
A rhetorical figure of speech in which parallel elements (clauses, phrases, or sentences) are not only grammatically similar but also closely match in length, creating a sense of rhythm, balance, and impact through their equal structure.
Example: "Veni, vidi, vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered). From Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God: "An envious heart makes a treacherous ear." Another example: "The bigger they are, the harder they fall." (clauses of equal length).
How to Identify: Two or more clauses or phrases are not just grammatically parallel but also have a strikingly similar number of words or syllables, creating a symmetrical rhythm.
47. Aesthetic
Pertaining to the branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty. In literature, it often refers to the intrinsic value of art for its own sake or its particular form.
Example: Discussions about a painting's "aesthetic value" might focus on its composition, color, and emotional impact, rather than its historical context or monetary worth.
How to Identify: When the text discusses or emphasizes qualities related to beauty, art, artistic expression, sensory experience, or the principles by which art is judged and enjoyed.
48. Juxtaposition
The deliberate placement of two contrasting elements (characters, ideas, settings, words, literary forms) side by side in a literary work to highlight their differences, create a specific effect, reveal an attitude, or achieve another objective. It often intensifies meaning.
Example: Placing a scene of extreme wealth alongside a scene of profound poverty to highlight social inequality. Or a character's rational thoughts juxtaposed with their emotional impulses.
How to Identify: The author places two significantly different or contrasting things (e.g., peace and chaos, light and darkness, two characters with opposing views) in close proximity to draw attention to their differences.
49. Elegy
A mournful, melancholic, or plaintive poem or prose piece specifically lamenting the death of a particular individual. It typically expresses grief and praise for the deceased, often reflecting on mortality.
Example: Thomas Gray's poem "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" meditates on death and the lives of ordinary people in a rural graveyard.
How to Identify: A formal, solemn poem or prose piece expressing sorrow for the dead, a sense of loss, and contemplation on mortality, often praising the virtues of a departed person.
50. Antihero
The protagonist of a literary work who fundamentally lacks the traditional heroic attributes such as courage, idealism, nobility, honor, or moral uprightness. Antiheroes are often flawed, morally ambiguous, cynical, ordinary, or even deeply misguided.
Example: The protagonists crafted by Byron in Don Juan and Childe Harold, as well as the characters Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, exemplify antiheroes. Severus Snape from Harry Potter, though complex, exhibits antiheroic traits.
How to Identify: The central character who, despite being the focus of the story, lacks conventional heroic qualities; they may be selfish, conflicted, or possess morally questionable traits, yet still engage the audience.
51. Catharsis
The process of releasing, and thereby providing relief from, strong or repressed emotions. In tragedy, it refers to the purification or purgation of emotions (like pity and terror) experienced by the audience, leading to emotional renewal or restoration.
Example: After watching a deeply moving tragedy, an audience member might feel a sense of emotional cleansing or relief from their own pent-up feelings.
How to Identify: A literary work (especially a tragedy) evokes intense emotions in the audience (like pity or fear), leading to a sense of emotional release, cleansing, or spiritual renewal by the play's end.
52. Epigraph
A short quotation, poem, or phrase placed at the beginning of a literary work or at the start of its individual chapters or sections. It serves to introduce the work, set the tone, suggest its theme, or provide background context.
Example: Many novels begin with a short quote from another text that subtly hints at the main themes or central conflict of the book.
How to Identify: A brief quotation or saying that appears at the beginning of a book or chapter, often preceding the main text and subtly hinting at the content or theme.
53. Motif
A recurrent or dominant thematic element, image, idea, symbol, or situation that appears repeatedly throughout a literary work. Unlike a theme, which is a big idea, a motif is a recurring element that contributes to one or more themes.
Example: In a story, the repeated mention of mirrors or reflections could be a motif related to themes of self-perception or illusion. Or specific colors (e.g., white for innocence) recurring through a novel.
How to Identify: A recurring image, action, object, phrase, or idea that is repeated throughout the text and often has symbolic significance, helping to develop the work's themes.
54. Parallelism
A rhetorical device characterized by recurrent syntactical similarity where various parts of a sentence or multiple sentences are expressed similarly in grammatical construction. This consistency signifies that the ideas contained are equally important, adding balance, rhythm, and clarity to sentences.
Example: "I have always searched for, but never found the perfect painting for that wall." "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times." (Dickens). "To err is human; to forgive, divine."
How to Identify: Look for successive phrases, clauses, or sentences that share the same grammatical structure, creating a sense of balance, repetition, and often emphasis.
55. Anaphora
The deliberate repetition of a specific word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences. This repetition is used for emphasis, rhetorical impact, or to create a strong emotional or rhythmic effect.
Example: "We shall fight in the trenches. We shall fight on the oceans. We shall fight in the sky." (Winston Churchill). "Every day, every night, in every way, I'm getting better and better."
How to Identify: The same word or group of words is repeated at the start of two or more consecutive clauses or sentences.
56. Anadiplosis
A rhetorical device in which the last word or phrase of one clause or sentence is repeated at the beginning of the next clause or sentence. This creates a flowing, connecting effect and can emphasize a particular idea.
Example: Alexander Pope's phrase, "The crime was common; common be the pain." Or, "Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering." (Yoda, Star Wars).
How to Identify: The very last word or phrase of a statement is immediately repeated at the beginning of the following statement, creating a chain-like connection of ideas.
57. Appeals to Authority, Emotion, Logic
These are the three primary modes of persuasion identified by Aristotle (ethos, pathos, logos), used to convince an audience:
Appeal to Authority (Ethos): Persuades by establishing the speaker's credibility, character, expertise, or moral standing, or by referencing respected experts or institutions.
Example: "As a doctor with 20 years of experience, I recommend this treatment." Or, "According to NASA scientists…"
How to Identify: The speaker uses their own reputation, professional title, experiences, or the endorsements of experts to build trust and persuade the audience.
Appeal to Emotion (Pathos): Persuades by stirring the audience's emotions, such as fear, pity, love, anger, or patriotism. It aims to create an emotional response that influences judgment.
Example: An advertisement showing starving children to solicit donations. Or a speech describing the horrors of war to advocate for peace.
How to Identify: The language used is highly emotive, designed to evoke a strong feeling (anger, sympathy, fear, joy) in the audience to sway their opinion.
Appeal to Logic (Logos): Persuades by using reason, facts, evidence, data, and logical arguments. It relies on the audience's rationality to accept the presented conclusion.
Example: Presenting statistics on climate change to argue for renewable energy. Or, a deductive argument for a conclusion based on verifiable premises.
How to Identify: The argument relies on facts, statistics, logical reasoning, cause-and-effect relationships, and objective evidence rather than emotional manipulation or personal credibility.
58. Imagery
The use of vivid, descriptive language that appeals to any or all of the five senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch) to create a mental picture or sensory experience for the reader. It employs figurative language to elicit feelings, invoke ideas, or describe an object.
Example: "The aroma of freshly baked bread filled the air," (smell). "The gnarled oak stood silhouetted against the bruised sky" (sight).
How to Identify: Look for descriptive language that creates strong sensory experiences for the reader, drawing upon the five senses to create a mental picture or feeling.
59. Euphemism
The act or an example of substituting a milder, indirect, or less offensive expression for a harsher, blunt, or more unpleasant one. It is used to soften the impact of difficult or taboo subjects.
Example: Using "passed away" instead of "died," "restroom" instead of "toilet," or "downsizing" instead of "firing employees."
How to Identify: An indirect or softer word/phrase is used in place of one that is more direct, explicit, or potentially offensive or embarrassing.
60. Genre
A category or type of literary composition, characterized by a particular form, style, or subject matter. Genres help classify and understand literary works based on shared conventions.
Example: Tragedy, comedy, novel, poem, short story, fantasy, science fiction, mystery, horror, romance, biography, essay, etc.
How to Identify: The overall classification of a literary work (e.g., fiction, non-fiction, poetry, drama) and its specific sub-category (e.g., fantasy novel, historical biography) based on shared conventions and characteristics.
61. Voice
In literature, this term typically refers to the distinctive style or personality of the writer or a narrator evident in a literary work. It reveals the author's attitude, tone, and character through elements like word choice, sentence structure, and imagery. It can also refer to the author's unique way of writing or the specific persona adopted by the narrator.
Example: Ernest Hemingway is known for his sparse, direct voice, while William Faulkner is known for a more complex, stream-of-consciousness voice.
How to Identify: Analyze the unique qualities of the writing style, word choice, sentence structure, and overall tone that betray the personality, beliefs, and attitude of the narrator or author.
62. Tone
The attitude that a literary work expresses towards its subject matter, themes, or audience, as reflected in the author's or narrator's stylistic choices. Tone can convey a range of emotions such as formal, informal, serious, playful, ironic, sarcastic, optimistic, or pessimistic.
Example: A news report would typically have an objective, formal tone, while a personal diary entry might have an informal, reflective, or emotional tone.
How to Identify: Pay attention to the author's diction (word choice), syntax (sentence structure), imagery, and overall stylistic choices that collectively convey their attitude toward the subject or audience.
63. Theme
The central, underlying, or dominant idea, message, or argument that a literary work explores. It represents the main meaning or insightful observation about life, humanity, or the world that emerges from the narrative, often universal in nature.
Example: Common themes include love, loss, courage, justice, identity, humanity's relationship with nature, or the struggle between good and evil.
How to Identify: The overarching message or main idea that the author conveys about life, society, or human nature through the story's events, characters, and conflicts. It's often not explicitly stated but inferred.
64. Protagonist
The primary or central character in a literary work, who drives the plot and is often the focus of the narrative and thematic arc. The audience typically follows the protagonist's journey and experiences their struggles.
Example: Harry Potter in the Harry Potter series; Katniss Everdeen in The Hunger Games; Luke Skywalker in Star Wars.
How to Identify: The character around whom the main action revolves; they are the character whose goals, conflicts, and development are central to the story.
65. Denotation
The literal, explicit, or primary dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any associated emotions, implications, or subjective interpretations. It is the direct and specific meaning, as opposed to its connotations.
Example: The denotation of "home" is a dwelling place. The denotation of "blue" is a color.
How to Identify: The objective, literal, and generally accepted dictionary meaning of a word, without considering any emotional associations or abstract ideas.
66. Mood
The emotional atmosphere or feeling evoked in the reader by a literary work. It is created through various elements such as setting, descriptive details, imagery, tone, and point of view, and can make the reader feel gloomy, fearful, hopeful, joyful, etc.
Example: A story set in a deserted, foggy graveyard at midnight would likely create a gloomy, eerie, or suspenseful mood.
How to Identify: The prevailing emotional quality or atmosphere of a literary work, which the author creates to make the reader feel a certain way (e.g., suspenseful, romantic, joyful, melancholic).
67. Realism
A literary movement or practice focused on representing subjects accurately and truthfully, without idealization, romanticization, or artificiality. It emphasizes detailed, often mundane, descriptions of everyday life, human behavior, and social conditions.
Example: Novels by Mark Twain or Honoré de Balzac often demonstrate realism by depicting life and society as they actually exist, rather than as they might be idealized.
How to Identify: The text attempts to portray life as it really is, focusing on believable characters, realistic settings, and plausible events, often detailed and without exaggerated drama.
68. Prose
The ordinary form of written or spoken language, without a metrical structure or rhyme scheme. It is characterized by grammatical coherence and includes all forms of written or spoken communication that are not verse or poetry.
Example: Novels, essays, articles, speeches, and everyday conversations are all forms of prose.
How to Identify: Writing that follows the natural flow of speech and ordinary grammatical structures, typically forming sentences and paragraphs, as opposed to poetic lines and stanzas.
69. Audience
The specific individuals or groups that a piece of writing, speech, or artistic work is designed to reach, influence, or address. Understanding the audience helps shape the content, tone, language, and style of communication.
Example: A children's book has a younger audience, requiring simpler language and engaging illustrations, whereas a scientific journal targets an academic audience, necessitating technical language and rigorous evidence.
How to Identify: Consider who the author intends to read or listen to the text. The language, style, and content will often be tailored to the assumed knowledge, interests, and values of this group.
70. Asyndeton
An omission of conjunctions (such as "and," "or," "but," "for") between parts of a sentence, clauses, or words where they would normally be expected. This technique creates a rapid, urgent, or emphatic rhythm, and can suggest an overwhelming accumulation or an incomplete list.
Example: "He was brave, fearless, afraid of nothing." (Instead of "brave, and fearless, and afraid of nothing."). "I came, I saw, I conquered."
How to Identify: The absence of conjunctions (especially "and" or "or") where they would grammatically fit, creating a quickened pace and a sense of immediacy or intensity.
71. Deductive
A reasoning approach whereby conclusions are drawn from a set of general premises, axioms, or rules, limiting the results to no more facts than these premises provide. If the premises are true, the conclusion must logically follow.
Example: "All birds have feathers (general premise). A robin is a bird (specific case). Therefore, a robin has feathers (necessary conclusion)."
How to Identify: Reasoning that starts with a general statement or hypothesis and applies it to a specific case to reach a certain conclusion. It moves from general principles to specific instances.
72. Assonance
The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds within stressed syllables of closely proximate words, but with different consonant sounds. It creates a sense of internal rhyme or a rhythmic effect.
Example: "Go slow over the road." (repetition of 'o' sound). "The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain" (repetition of 'ai' sound).
How to Identify: Look for the recurrence of similar vowel sounds in nearby words, particularly in stressed syllables, while the surrounding consonant sounds differ.
73. Alliteration
The conspicuous repetition of initial consonant sounds in successive or closely proximate words, typically in a poetic line or stanza, or near each other in prose. It creates a musical effect, emphasizes certain words, or links ideas.
Example: "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers." "She sells seashells by the seashore."
How to Identify: The repetition of the same initial consonant sound in words that are close together in a phrase, line, or sentence.
74. Consonance
The recurrence of similar consonant sounds within or at the end of words in a phrase, sentence, or line of poetry. Unlike alliteration, which focuses on initial consonants, consonance can occur anywhere in the words, with a variation in the intervening vowels.
Example: "Pitter-patter," "splish-splash," "click-clack." "Mike likes his new bike." (repetition of 'k' sound).
How to Identify: The repetition of consonant sounds (not necessarily at the beginning) in words that are close to each other, often contributing to rhythm or sound effects.
75. Invective
The use of angry, insulting, or highly abusive language. It is strong, vehement denunciation or abusive expression, often employed in satirical writing, political discourse, or heated arguments to attack or denounce a person or topic.
Example: A political commentator using harsh, derogatory terms to criticize a policy or opponent's character. Often seen in rants or diatribes.
How to Identify: Characterized by harsh, vitriolic, and insulting language used to strongly criticize, denounce, or verbally attack a person or idea.
76. Point of View
The narrative perspective from which a story is told, dictating how the audience perceives the actions, characters, and events within a story. Common types include first person (I), second person (you), and third person (he/she/they), which can be omniscient or limited.
Example: First person: "I walked down the street." Third person omniscient: "She walked down the street, unaware of the trap that awaited him, while he plotted his revenge."
How to Identify: Determine who is narrating the story and what their relationship is to the events (e.g., "I" for first person, "he/she/they" with access to some or all thoughts for third person).
77. Persona
(Latin for "mask") The voice or character assumed by a writer or speaker in a literary work, often differing from the actual author's values, beliefs, or identity. It is the fictional character created by the author to tell the story or present an argument.
Example: A male author might write a novel from the persona of a young woman, adopting her voice, thoughts, and experiences.
How to Identify: The assumed identity or character that the author adopts as the narrator or speaker in order to tell the story or express ideas; it's the "mask" the author wears.
78. Syntax
The grammatical arrangement of words to create phrases, clauses, and sentences. It refers to the rules governing sentence structure and significantly influences how a reader interprets a piece of writing, contributing to rhythm, emphasis, and meaning.
Example: A writer might use short, simple sentences for a quick, urgent effect, or long, complex sentences to convey intricate ideas. Inverted syntax (Yoda speech: "Strong with the Force, you are") is another example.
How to Identify: Examine the way words are ordered and arranged into phrases, clauses, and sentences; consider sentence length, complexity, inversions, and general sentence structure.
79. Canon (canonical)
The established or traditional body of works attributed to an author, or a recognized collection of texts considered authentic, authoritative, and/or representative for a particular literary tradition, genre, or period. It represents a selection of literary works considered to be the most important.
Example: The Shakespearean canon refers to all the plays and poems definitively attributed to William Shakespeare. The literary canon might refer to works commonly studied in higher education.
How to Identify: A collection of literary works (by an author, period, or genre) that are widely accepted as authentic, important, and central to a particular tradition or field of study.
80. Foreshadow
A literary device where an author subtly hints at or introduces suggestive elements that present forthcoming events, outcomes, or future developments within a story or play. It builds suspense and prepares the reader for later occurrences.
Example: A character might dismiss a strange warning, only for that warning to later manifest as a significant plot point. A sudden change in weather, like an approaching storm, might foreshadow impending danger or conflict.
How to Identify: The author provides clues, hints, or subtle suggestions early in the story about events that will happen later, often through dialogue, symbolism, or shifts in mood.
81. Begging the Question
A logical fallacy (also known as petitio principii) where the premise of an argument assumes the truth of the conclusion. Essentially, the argument's validity relies on the very point it's trying to prove, rather than providing independent evidence.
Example: "God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is true because God wrote it." (The existence of God is assumed to prove the Bible's truth, and vice versa).
How to Identify: An argument where the conclusion is already embedded or assumed within one of the premises, meaning no new information is offered to support the claim.
82. Personification
The attribution of human characteristics, emotions, or behaviors to inanimate objects, animals, abstract ideas, or natural phenomena, treating them as if they were human beings capable of thought and feeling.
Example: "The wind whispered secrets through the trees." "The sun smiled down on us." "Justice is blind."
How to Identify: An inanimate object, abstract concept, or animal is described as if it has human qualities, actions, or emotions.
83. Anachronism
The introduction of historically inaccurate elements into a text. This refers to an object, person, custom, or event that is out of its proper time period. It can be used intentionally for humor, commentary, or artistic effect, or unintentionally as an error.
Example: Depicting a 19th-century character using contemporary technology like a computer. In Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, the reference to a "clock" is an anachronism as clocks did not exist in ancient Rome in that form.
How to Identify: An element (object, phrase, custom, piece of technology) appears in the text that clearly belongs to a different historical period than the one being depicted.
84. Ambiguity
The quality of language or meaning that allows for multiple interpretations. Ambiguity can result from vague phrasing, unclear pronoun references, or intentional crafting by the writer to evoke nuanced connotative meanings and allow for multiple valid readings.
Example: The statement "I saw the man with the telescope" could mean either the speaker used a telescope to see the man, or the speaker saw a man who had a telescope.
How to Identify: A word, phrase, sentence, or situation that is open to more than one distinct interpretation, creating uncertainty or multiple possible meanings, often intentionally by the author.
85. Connotation
The emotional associations, cultural implications, or suggested meanings that a word carries beyond its literal, dictionary definition (denotation). Connotations can be positive, negative, or neutral and vary based on context and individual experience.
Example: The word "home" denotes a dwelling, but connotes warmth, family, comfort, and security. Words like "adolescent" (neutral), "teenager" (informal/neutral), and "brat" (negative) all denote a young person, but have different connotations.
How to Identify: Consider the implied or associated meanings of a word that go beyond its literal definition, often evoking emotional responses or cultural associations.
86. Transition Words
Words, phrases, or clauses that connect ideas, sentences, and paragraphs, thereby enhancing the unity, coherence, and logical flow of writing. They bridge gaps between ideas and guide the reader smoothly from one point to the next.
Example: "However," "in addition," "on the other hand," "therefore," "consequently," "for example," "similarly," "meanwhile," "in conclusion."
How to Identify: Look for words or phrases that signal the relationship between ideas (e.g., cause/effect, comparison/contrast, sequence, addition, conclusion) and help connect different parts of a text seamlessly.