Key Developments in Global History from c. 1200 to c. 1750

Unit 1: The Global Tapestry c. 1200 to c. 1450

1.1 Developments in East Asia from c. 1200 to c. 1450

Introduction and Confucianism

  • Importance of China:

    • China was a significant power during this period.

  • Song Dynasty's Revival of Confucianism:

    • The Song rulers revived Confucianism that had roots in the Tang dynasty.

    • Confucianism promotes a hierarchical view of human nature:

    • Key Hierarchical Relationships:

      • Fathers > Sons

      • Husbands > Wives

      • Rulers > Subjects

    • Obedience to Superiors:

    • Emphasis on obeying superiors and elders.

    • Filial Piety:

    • The practice of honoring one's ancestors and parents.

  • Decline of Confucianism After the Han Dynasty:

    • With the fall of the Han dynasty, Confucianism weakened.

  • Neo-Confucianism:

    • A revival of Confucianism during the Tang dynasty which integrated Buddhist and Daoist philosophical ideas, making it distinct.

  • Women's Status:

    • Women in Song China held subordinate positions, with restricted legal rights.

    • Property ownership transferred to male counterparts; widowed or divorced women were barred from re-marriage.

    • Footbinding:

    • A status symbol among elite males; women's inability to walk denoted wealth as servants handled their work.

  • Imperial Bureaucracy:

    • A government structure executing the emperor's will, consisting of thousands of officials ensuring the execution of policies.

    • Civil Service Exams:

    • Men aiming for bureaucracy needed to pass exams based on Confucian classics, ensuring that only the most qualified held positions.

Cultural Influence

  • Korea:

    • Maintained a tributary relationship with China, occasionally visiting the Song dynasty to pay tribute.

    • Embraced civil service exams and Confucian principles while marginalizing women's roles.

  • Japan:

    • Although separated from China by ocean, Japan influenced and adopted aspects of Chinese culture voluntarily.

    • Selectively integrated useful elements of Chinese politics and society, discarding those deemed undesirable.

  • Vietnam:

    • Held a similar relationship with China as Korea.

    • Elite Vietnamese society also engaged with Confucianism, Buddhism, literary techniques, and civil service examination, but rejected footbinding.

  • Buddhism:

    • Originated in India and spread to China, emphasizing the Four Noble Truths mainly focusing on suffering and the Eightfold Path which guides followers toward a moral lifestyle and meditation.

    • Varieties of Buddhism:

    • Theravada Buddhism:

      • Focuses on escaping the rebirth cycle, preserving original teachings.

    • Mahayana Buddhism:

      • Claims teachings are accessible to all.

    • Tibetan Buddhism:

      • Shares doctrines with increased mystical practices.

    • Under the Song dynasty, traditional Chinese philosophies such as Confucianism prioritized over Buddhism, but the latter still played a significant societal role.

Prosperity

  • Economic Production:

    • China produced surpluses of goods for international markets; officials promoted paper money usage.

  • Industrial Development:

    • Notable production of iron and steel for military equipment.

  • Champa Rice:

    • Drought-resistant rice imported from Champa Kingdom, enabling biannual harvests, leading to a population explosion—effectively doubling the population.

  • Transportation Innovations:

    • Expansion of the Grand Canal reduced trading costs.

    • Magnetic Compass:

    • Enhanced navigation in trade.

    • New Shipbuilding Techniques:

    • Development of junks or large vessels fostering increased trade.

1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam from c. 1200 to c. 1450

Monotheistic Faiths

  • Judaism:

    • An ethnic faith worshiping one God.

  • Christianity:

    • Founded by Jesus Christ, centers on righteous actions.

  • Islam:

    • Founded by Prophet Muhammad.

    • After his death, Islam spread significantly across the Middle East and Africa, identified as Dar al-Islam (House of Islam).

    • Muhammad was initially a merchant before becoming a prophet.

Islamic Empires

  • Abbasid and Umayyad Caliphates:

    • Dominantly ethnically Arab, overseen during the Islamic Golden Age, marked by numerous innovations in various fields including technology, mathematics, and science.

    • Experienced military conflicts, leading to the rise of Turkish states.

    • Seljuk Empire:

    • Composed of pastoral Turkic peoples integrated by the Abbasids, emphasizing a transformation of power.

    • Mamluk Sultanate:

    • Founded by enslaved Turkic fighters, which later seized power, resulting in a new Turkic Muslim state.

    • Delhi Sultanate:

    • Emerged in South Asia, marking Islamic influence as Arab empires declined and Turkic powers rose.

  • Military Expansion and Merchant Activity:

    • Notable exchanges of trade and movements by merchants across Muslim regions.

    • Conversion of Mali to Islam occurring through interactions and the work of Sufi missionaries.

Sufism

  • Emergence of Sufism:

    • A developing mystical dimension within Islam.

  • Mathematical Innovations:

    • Contributions included Nasir al-Din al-Tusi's trigonometry to comprehend celestial movements, leading to later developments regarding planetary motion.

  • House of Wisdom:

    • Established in Baghdad to facilitate studies merging religion and science.

    • Scholars helped safeguard Greek literature by translating it into Arabic.

1.3 Developments in South and Southeast Asia from c. 1200 to c. 1450

Belief Systems

  • Hinduism:

    • The dominant religion in India, characterized as polytheistic with aims to reunite individual souls with Brahman, which typically takes multiple lifetimes.

    • Established societal structures fostering a cohesive culture.

  • Caste System:

    • Social hierarchy includes:

    • Dalit (Untouchables)

    • Shudra (laborers)

    • Vaishya (merchants)

    • Kshatriya (warriors)

    • Brahmin (priests)

    • Movement within the caste system is not possible in one lifetime; reincarnation offers opportunities for advancement.

  • Buddhism:

    • Founded in India, shares some beliefs with Hinduism but advocates for equality and rejects the caste system.

    • Considered a universalizing religion, contrary to Hinduism, which is more confined culturally.

  • Islam's Arrival:

    • Introduced by Turkic Muslim invaders, established the Delhi Sultanate amidst the decline of Buddhism.

    • Islam became the second most significant belief system.

State Building in South Asia

  • Delhi Sultanate:

    • Encountered challenges in imposing Islam on India.

    • Rajput Kingdoms:

    • Pre-existing rival Hindu kingdoms that persisted.

  • Vijayanagara Empire:

    • Muslim sultanates aimed to extend their influence southward.

    • Emissaries dispatched to convert Hindu areas often reverted to Hinduism after observing cultural differences.

Sea-Based and Land-Based States in Southeast Asia

  • Srivijaya Empire:

    • A Buddhist state influenced by Hindu culture, profiting from taxing ships traversing the region.

  • Majapahit:

    • Maintained authority through a tributary system.

  • Khmer Empire:

    • Began as a Hindu empire, later transitioned to Buddhism, leading to a synthesis of religious practices.

Unit 2: Networks of Exchange c. 1200 to c. 1450

2.2 The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World

Overview

  • Mongolia:

    • Recognized as the largest land-based empire ever.

  • Genghis Khan (Temujin):

    • Known for extensive conquests and military organization posthumously expanded by his son.

    • His tactics included skilled horse riding and advanced archery.

    • Mongol reputation included brutality towards conquered peoples, initially terrorizing, then promoting stability post-conquest.

  • Pax Mongolica:

    • A period of peace established by Mongol rule facilitating trade and cultural exchanges.

  • Kublai Khan:

    • Ruled in China, establishing the Yuan dynasty and maintained Confucian governance principles.

Economic Impact

  • Trade Routes Expansion:

    • Expanded and organized trade routes, particularly the Silk Roads thrived under Mongol administration.

    • Improvement of infrastructure, including bridges, and flourishing trade enhanced economic interconnectivity.

  • Shared Communication System (Yam):

    • Promoted efficient communication across the empire allowing for traders and messengers to cover distances quickly.

Cultural Transfers

  • Cultural Exchange:

    • Mongols preserved skilled individuals, fostering technology and cultural transfer, including medical knowledge exchanged with Greek-Islamic scholars.

    • Adoption of Uyghur script to enhance communication.

Unit 3: Land-Based Empires c. 1450 to c. 1750

3.3 Empires and Belief Systems

Christianity

  • Dominance in Europe:

    • Christianity remained the predominant religion, leading to doctrinal disputes creating branches: Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church.

  • Power of the Catholic Church:

    • The church accrued wealth and authority, including practices like selling indulgences and simony.

  • Protestant Reformation:

    • Initiated by Martin Luther's 95 Theses in Wittenberg critiquing church practice, leading to a split.

    • Luther's adoption of the printing press notably enabled the spread of his ideas.

  • Counter-Reformation:

    • Catholic Church's response with councils (e.g., Council of Trent) to address corruption and reform practices.

Islam

  • Key Islamic Empires:

    • Predominantly the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire.

    • Identified split between Sunni (Ottoman) and Shia (Safavid) sects, leading to territorial disputes and intensified theological conflict.

New Belief Systems

  • Mughal Empire:

    • Predominantly Islamic rulers in a vastly Hindu society caused friction; emerged Bhakti movement generated calls for greater inclusivity in worship.

  • Sikhism:

    • Innovation arising from a blend of Islamic and Hindu beliefs, discarding caste systems while upholding concepts of a singular God.

3.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires

Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections c. 1450 to c. 1750

4.1 Technological Innovations from 1450 to 1750

Maritime Technologies

  • Developments in Europe:

    • Maritime technologies were adapted rather than invented by Europeans.

    • Magnetic Compass:

    • Developed in China, assisting navigators with directions at sea.

    • Astrolabe:

    • Used for latitude and longitude assessment via stellar observation, originating from Arabian or Greek practices.

    • Lateen Sail:

    • A triangular sail designed by Arabs facilitating navigation with winds from any direction.

    • Improved Astronomical Charts:

    • Provided detailed celestial diagrams aiding sailors in determining positions.

  • European Innovations:

    • Development of the Portuguese Caravel:

    • Smaller, fast ships equipped for combat; efficient in inland waterways.

    • Portuguese Carrack:

    • Larger vessels for substantial cargo, armed for protection, signifying control over Indian Ocean trade.

    • Fluyt (Dutch):

    • Specialized trade ship with extensive cargo capacity and crew requirements, minimizing production costs.

4.3 The Columbian Exchange

  • Initiation of Columbian Exchange:

    • Sparked by European exploration for water routes to the East Indies; led by Christopher Columbus's westward expedition.

Disease Transmission

  • Impact of Diseases:

    • Afro-Eurasia populations had developed immunities over centuries due to trade connections.

    • Indigenous Americans lacked immunity against introduced diseases.

    • Notable Diseases Include:

    • Malaria:

      • Introduced via enslaved Africans.

    • Smallpox:

      • Causes severe population declines among indigenous groups, termed the “Great Dying.”

Food Exchange and Effects

  • European Contributions:

    • Introduction of stable crops such as wheat and grapes, significant to European diets.

    • Also included African and Asian plants like bananas and sugar.

  • Amerindian Diets:

    • Indigenous populations gradually incorporated new foods leading to dietary diversification—subsequently raising lifespans.

  • New World Crops:

    • Adoption of crops such as potatoes and maize in Europe post-1700, contributing to healthier diets and notable population growth.

    • Cash cropping arose, leading to plantation systems operated primarily by enslaved labor.

Animal Exchange

  • Introduction of Domesticated Animals:

    • Animals like pigs, sheep, and cattle thrived in America due to lack of predators, influencing ranching economies.

  • Environmental Consequences:

    • Overgrazing by sheep caused soil erosion and environmental strain on indigenous farming practices.

  • Cultural Impact of Horses:

    • Enhanced hunting capabilities of Native Americans leading to changes in lifestyles revolving around buffalo hunting.

Unit 5: Revolutions c. 1750 to c. 1900

5.1 The Enlightenment

Intellectual Movement

  • Definition:

    • An intellectual movement that introduced rational and empiricist approaches to natural sciences and societal relationships.

  • Central Beliefs:

    • Emphasis on rationalism (reason as a truth source) and empiricism (knowledge derived from sensory experience).

Scientific Revolution

  • Break from Tradition:

    • Scientists began to dismiss traditional authorities, paving the way for scientific breakthroughs in fields, such as human anatomy.

  • Extension to Human Society:

    • Enlightenment thinkers utilized scientific methods to examine human society and its structures.

  • Questioning Religion:

    • Challenge to the inherent role of Christianity and its authoritative structure within government.

    • **New Belief Systems:

    • Deism:

      • Belief in a creator who allows the universe to operate on its own.

    • Atheism:

      • Denial of any divine existence.

Political Ideas

  • Individualism:

    • Centrality of individual human existence as the fundamental societal unit.

  • Natural Rights:

    • Every human possesses inalienable rights; John Locke argued for life, liberty, and property, rights believed to be God-given and could not be revoked.

  • Social Contract:

    • Societies constructed governments to protect their natural rights with authority originating from the populace.

Effects of Enlightenment

  • Major Revolutions:

    • Ushered significant events like the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American revolutions.

  • Suffrage Movements:

    • Emergence of voting rights progressing through the 18th and 19th centuries.

  • Abolition Movements:

    • Movement towards the end of slavery, notably achieving policies in Great Britain.

  • End of Serfdom:

    • Shift from agrarian labor reliance as nations industrialized; serfdom became obsolete.

  • Women's Suffrage:

    • Women's rights movements emerged, pursuing equality, exemplified in organized events like the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.

5.2 Nationalism and Revolutions from 1750 to 1900

Causes of Nationalism

  • Rising Nationalism:

    • A potent sense of community among people based on shared heritage, language, and customs fueled desires for territorial autonomy.

  • Political Dissent:

    • Discontent towards monarchies and imperial rule, notably within the Safavid Empire leading to its eventual decline.

  • New Ideological Developments:

    • Enlightenment ideas encouraged innovative government structures and concepts of popular sovereignty, democracy, and liberalism.

Revolutions

  • American Revolution (1776):

    • Sparked by colonial discontent toward British rule and enlightenment philosophies, culminating in the Declaration of Independence.

  • French Revolution (1789):

    • Influenced by revolutionary fervor following American successes, leading to the overthrow of the monarchy.

  • Haitian Revolution (1791):

    • Enslaved people, inspired by Enlightenment ideals, led by Toussaint Louverture against French colonial rule, establishing a new republic.

  • Latin American Revolutions:

    • Instigated by creoles and the political instability from Napoleon Bonaparte's invasions, seeking independence from Spanish and Portuguese rule.

  • Other Nationalist Movements:

    • Nationalism unified fragmented states, exemplified through unification processes in Italy and Germany amidst rising national consciousness.