psych review 2

Encoding - getting info into memory

Automatic encoding- reuters no effort

Effortful encoding- requires attention like school work

Imagery- attaching images to info makes it easier to remember

Self referent encoding - we better remember what we r interested in

Dual encoding- combining diff types of encoding

Chunking- break info into smaller units

Mnemonics- shortcuts to help us remember

Method of loci- using locations to remember large info

Context dependent memory- where you learn the info you best remember the info

Storage- retaining info over time

Information processing model- sensory, short term, long term memory

Sensory-stores all incoming stimuli, forgotten

  • Iconic memory- visual
  • Echoic memory-auditory

Short term memory- info passed from sensory to stm by encoding , lasts about 30 sec, can remember 7+/-2 items, rehearsal which is repeating the info, resets the clock

Working memory splits stm into 2 , visual spatial and phonological

Long term memory- lasts a lifetime, not forgotten, easy to recall

  • Episodic memory- events
  • Semantic - facts/knowledge
  • Procedural- remembering the skills
  • Explicit memory- conscious memories of facts or events we actually tried to remember
  • Implicit memory- unintentional memory that we do not realize we have (priming, info that is seen earlier helps you remember something later)

Memory organization

  • Semantic networks- linked memories are stored together
  • Schemas- preexisting mental concept of how something should look

Memory storage

  • Acetylcholine in hippocampus helps
  • Cerebellum for procedural memories
  • Long term potentiation- neural basis of memory, connections are strengthened over time w repeated stimulation, synapse gets small as firing of neurons increase

Retrieval- taking info out of storage

  • Serial position effect- tendency to remember beginning and end of list
  • Recall- remember something without cues
  • Recognition- remember something with cues
  • Flashbulb memories- vivid memories of highly important events like 9/11
  • repressed memories- unconsciously buried memories ,are unreliable freud says
  • Encoding failure- forget info bc you never paid attention to it in first place
  • Forgetting curve by ebbinghaus- recall decreases rapidly at first then reaches a stable after which little more if forgotten
  • Proactive interference- old info blocks the adding of new info
  • Retroactive interference- new info block recalling old info
  • Misinformation effect -distortion of memory by suggestion
  • Anterograde amnesia- amnesia makes you forget new info
  • Retrograde Amnesia - amnesia that makes you forget the old info
  • Alzheimer -destruction of acetylcholine

Language

  • Phoneme- smallest unit of sound
  • Morpheme- smallest unit that carries meaning
  • Grammar- rules in language that makes us communicate
  • Semantic- set of rules by which we derive meaning
  • Syntax- rules for combining words into sentences
  • Babbling stage- infants babble
  • One word stage, two word stage, telegraphic speech

Imitation- kids repeat what they hear

Overregulation- grammar mistake where children overuse certain morphemes

Inborn universal grammar- noam chomsky-language is innate and we are predisposed to learn it-language acquisition device

Critical period- something must be learned in that time period or it will never be learned

Unit Thinking

Concepts- mental categories used to group things

Prototype- all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example

Algorithm- step by step strategies that guarantee a solution

Heuristic- shortcuts- rule of thumb

Representative heuristic- make inferences based on your experience like stereotype(assume someone must be librarian bc theyre quiet)

availability heuristic- relying on availability to judge the frequency of something(sharks are more dangerous bc you see it on tv more)

Functional fixedness- keep using one strategy cannot think outside of box

Belief bias- tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions, accept an argument that is wrong just because it supports your own ideas

Belief perseverance- tendency to stick to our beliefs in case of a contrary evidence , keep believing

Inductive reasoning- data driven ,general to specific

Deductive reasoning- driven by logic, specific to general

Divergent thinking- ability to think about many diff things at once

Tip of the tongue phenomenon - inability to remember information

Unit 7

Motivation - an internal process that makes a person move toward a goal

Instinct- complex behavior have fixed patterns and are not learned

Drive reduction - psychological need creates aroused tension (drive) that motivates you to satisfy the need(driven by homeostasis which is the balanced place, equilibrium)

Optimum arousal- humans seek optimum levels of arousal, easier tasks requires more arousal

  • Hierarchy of needs by maslow- needs lower in the pyramid have priority over needs higher in the pyramid
  • Hypothalamus connect nervous system to pituitary gland which secretes sex hormones including testosterone and estrogen - directs the adrenal glands to secrete sex steroids

Pituitary glands create Human growth hormone -hgh

Push motive -sex

  • Lateral hypothalamus - promotes eating behaviors, hungry
  • Ventromedial- stops eating, full

Glucostatic hypothesis- levels of glucose signal body regarding need for food

  • Low levels of glucose - hungry

Lipostatic hypothesis- levels of lipids signal the body's need for food

  • Leptin- hormone produced by bloated fat cells that communicates with hypothalamus
  • More leptin less hungry you feel

Orexin- hunger triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

Insulin - hormone by pancreas- controls blood glucose

Small intestine release PYY and CKK soon after eating to signal fullness

- when low levels of pyy, hunger

Ghrelin - gut hormone that stimulates hunger

Lack of serotonin- depression

Set point theory- each person has a preset body weight range that is biologically determined - nature

Gate control theory of pain- When Inhibitory message of large fibers are greater than excitatory messages of small fibers- gate closed, no pain- When excitatory messagers are greater- gate opens, pain

Small fibers control activate and open the neural gate

Push- biological, pull nurture

Achievement

  • Nervous system needs more arousal- yerkes dodson law
  • Observational learning
  • N- ach - need for achievement - intrinsic desire to overcome obstacles and meet high standards
  • Tat(thematic apperception test) - not objective or standardized, it is subjective , To assess the factors that motivate a persons choice of occupations decisions and behavior in personal and professional relationships

Instinct theory

  • Instinct- complex behavior that must have fixed pattern throughout a species and be unlearned
  • Organisms are born w biological based behaivors essential for survival

Hulls Drive reduction theory / homeostasis regulation

  • Physiological need creates aroused state- drive- that motivates an organism to satisfy needs
  • Homesotaiss is tendency to maintain a balance or constant internal state which is body
  • Body lacks something (the drive- lack of homeostasis) - send message to brain- adjust
  • Aroused state- satisfy physiological needs like hunger - pushed by need to reduce

Maslow's Hierarchy of needs - really important in ap test

  • People are motivated by certain needs beginning with physiological needs then interaction then love or belonging then esteem and respect than self actualisation

Yerkes dodson law /arousal theory-

  • We perform best with an optimal level of arousal in our CNS
  • Driven by curiosity
  • If lacking stimulation , we feel bored and look for arousal increase
  • Push motive- achievement

Incentive theory

Intrinsic motivation- inherit satisfaction

  • Most creative work is motivated within yourself

Extrinsic motivation - rewards that come from outside

  • Too much results in overjustification effect

James lange theory- after stimulus ,physiological response affects emotion

  • Facial feedback theory -if we smile we feel happier, changing face muscles affect our emotions

Cannon bard- stimulus causes physiological and emotional resposne at hte same time

  • Thalamus and amygdala act at the same time

Scahcter two factor - after stimulus, physiological response then we interpret it “cognitve labeling” and label it, then emotions

  • Spillovre effect,- when you are mad at someone else but get mad at your bro

Robert zajong and mere exposure

  • People tend to develop preferences to the things they are familiar with

General adaptation syndrome- phases of a stress response by selye

  • Alarm, you freak out
  • Resistance, you are dealing with stress
  • Exhaustion, you cannot take the stress anymore, give up

Type a personality-stressful, perfectionist, risk of heart disease , type b is calmer

Hawthrone effect- productivity increases when workers are made to feel important

Theory x - manager controls employees , enforces rules, lower level jobs

Theory y- manager give employees responsibility, looks for input, higher level

Zygote- first 2 weeks cells are dividing

Embryo- until about 9 weeks vital organs are formed

Fetus- 9 weeks of birth, overall development

Teratogens- external agents that cause prenatal development

Piaget

Schemas- concepts that organize info

Assimilation-incorporate new info into existing schema

Accommodation adjust existing schemas to incorporate new info

Sensorimotor stage-2 yrs, object permanence, objects when removed from field are through to disappear, recognizing themselves

Preoperational 2-7 - use pretend play develop language,lack conservation(recognize tht substances remain the same despite changes in shape), lack of reversibility(cannot do reverse operations), egocentric(inability to distinguish own perspective from anothers, everyone sees what kid sees)

Concrete operational 7-11- use operational thinking, logical

Formal operational 11-15- abstract and idealist thoughts

Vygotsky-cognitive development is a social process

  • Zone of proximal development- gap bw what a cold can do on their own and with support ,need scaffolding (teacher)

Temperament- patterns of emoitna reactions and babies

Imprinting- lorenz, baby geese believe the frist thing they see and follow, during critical period

Harry harlow- comfort is important, monkey

Mary ainsworth- strange situation paradigm,children left alone w a stranger in room

  • Most of them secure attachment, they go back to mom after shes back
  • avoidant, they do not care when mom left
  • ambivalent- they avoid mom when shes back

Baumrind- parenting styles

Authoritarian- rules , obedience, kids lack initiative

Permissive- kids do whatever , no rules, lack initiative

Authoritative- give and take w kids, reliable

Kohlebergs moral development

Preconventional - children they follow rules to avoid punishment

Conventional- follow rules bc rules exist to keep order

Post conventional-adults, they do what they believe is right

Erikson’s socioemotional

  • Trust v mistrust- infants need trust
  • Autonomy v shame-toddlers learn to exercise their will
  • Initiative v guilt- 3 to 6 years, learn to do tasks
  • Industry v inferiority-6 to puberty, learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks
  • Identity v role confusion - adolescence to twenties, sense of self by testing
  • Intimacy v isolation- 20s to 40s, form close relationships
  • Gennerativity v stagnation-40s to 60s, sense of contributing to the world
  • Integrity v despair- reflect on life

Primary sex characterisc- ovaries testicles

Secondary sex cahract- nonreproductive that develop durng puberty like breasts voice

Scoial learning theory- we learn gender roles and indetity from people ariound us

Cross sectional study- people diff ages at the same point in time

Longitudinal study- studies same people over time

Stages of grief-denial,anger,bargaining,depression,acceptance

Unit 8

Psychodnaimc theory

Freud- personality is largely unconscious

  • Conscious- immediate awareness
  • Preconscious - available to awareness
  • Unconscious- unavailable to awareness
  • Id-operates according to pleasure
  • Ego-operates according to reality ,mediates
  • Superego- according to morality

When ego cannot defend use defense mechanisms like reaction formation(transform unacceptable motive into his opposite)

Oral stage-0 to 18 months, pleasure focuses on mouth- causes smoking, drinks

Anal stage- 18 to 36 months,pleasure involves eliminative functions

Phallic stage-pleasure focuses on genitals

  • Oedipal- young boys learn to identify with their father out of fear of retribution
  • Electra- young girls learn to identify w mother bc they cannot w their father

Latency stage- psychic time out, personality is set

Genital state-sexual reawakening

Fixation - can become stuck in an earlier stage

Psychoanalysis- analyze a persons unconscious

Free association- say aloud everything that comes to ur mind

Transference-looks for feelings to transfer to psychonalayst

Dream interpreting

Projective tests- ambiguous stimuli show (subjective)- thematic apperception test, rorschach test

Neofreudians

  • Carl jung- collective unconscious , shared inherited reservoir of memory
  • Karen horney- personality edvleops in context of social not sexual

Trait perspective- traits are personality characteristics

Openness, imaginative

Conscientiousness, organzied

Extraversion

Agreebalness

Neuroticism, calm or anxiety

  • Measure by myer briggs(mmpi)

Humanistic perspective

  • Rogers- emphasizes personal growth and free will
  • Your self concept is center of your personality

Social cognitive perspective

  • Bandura, reciprocal determisim , the interaction bw behavior cognition and environment makes u
  • Internal locus of control, you control your own fate- external locus of control, outside forces

Galton- first to suggest intelligence was inherited

Crystaliized intelligence- reasoning and verbal skills like what you learn in school, inc over time

Fluid intelligence- ailties, memory, things that come naturally to you- decreases over time(ITS LIKE LIQUID GONE FAST)

Spearman - general intelligence(g) underlies all mental abitlies

Garnder- 8 intelligence types

Sternberg - triarchic theroy

  • Practical - size up new citations and adapt to rela life demands, street smart
  • Creative- intellectual and motivational process lead to idea
  • Analytical -mental components to solve problem

Binet- stanford-binet test iq= metnal /chronological agex100

Wechsler- developed wais and wisc most used today

Flynn effect- iq has steadily risen over the years

Aptitude test- predicts your ability to lear a new skill

Achievement teset- test what you know like ap test

Abnormal behavior must be deviant distrseful and dysfunctional for a diagnosis

Diagnosing - Dsm- manual listing all currently accepted disorders

Anxiety disordesr

  • Generalized anxiety disorder- person is generally anxious for no reason
  • Panic disorder- prone to freuqent panic attacks
  • Phobia- feaer that disrupts life
  • Obssesive compulsive disorder- overhwlemd with obsession(unwanted thoguhts) and compulssion(sensless rituals like washng hands)
  • Post traumatic stress disorder-from flashbacks, problemswith concentration and anxiety following a traumatic event

Causes of these

  • Psychodynamic- repressed thoguhts
  • Bheaviorst- obersvational learning
  • Biological- less GABA in brain

Dissociative identity disorders- multiple personalities who normally have no awareness of each other- caused by traumatic childhood abuse

Major depressive disorder- extreme sadness and despair with no cause

Bipolar disorder- bouts of severe depression

Schizophrenia

  • Postive symptoms hallucinations(snsory experinces without stiumaltion), deulistions(fixed or false beleifs), disorganized speech
  • Negative symptoms- lack ability to show emotions, impaired decison making

Causes

  • Too much dopamine, mz twins, small frontal cortex
  • Diathesis stress- individual has genetic predisposition , disease must be turned on by environment

Personality disorder - borderline, unstable interpersonal relationships and self image

Treatmanents

Psychodynamic- listed above

Humanistic- client cetnred therapy, active lsitening therapist does not talk

Cognitive- rational emotive therapy, analyzing self defeating behaviors to change thought patterns- cognitive therapy, illogical thoguhts cause problems

Behavioral- counter conditioning;

-aversive conditioning , associate an unpleasant experience with unwanted behavior

- exposure therapy, slowly expose peopel to wahtever it is that makes them anxious

-systemaic desentiaziton, asoscaite a pleasant state with gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli

- intensive exposure(flooding), force someone to expericne the fear

Operant conditioning - use behavior modification

Biological-drugs like antidepressants to inc serotonin , antipsychotics to dec dopamine, thorazine, clozapine, abilify,ssri, mood stabilizers like lithium for bipolar, electroconvulsive therapy

Social thinkng

Attibrtuoin theory- we epxlain others behaviors by crediitng the situation