Untitled Notes

Exploration of lands in Arizona began in the 1540s.
- Spanish explorers such as Coronado claimed large territories for Spain.
- Few attempts at establishing permanent settlements (missions or towns) occurred before the 1690s.
Padre Kino started his missionary work near modern Tucson in the 1690s.

Juan de Oñate led the first Spanish colonization effort around Santa Fe in 1598.
- Established Santa Fe de Nuevo México as a province of New Spain.
- Oñate's efforts were ultimately unsuccessful, leading to his replacement by Governor Pedro de Peralta.
  - Peralta established a new town, La Villa Real de la Santa Fé de San Francisco de Asís (Santa Fe) in 1607.
- Santa Fe served as the capital of the province in 1610, and later became the U.S. territorial capital and New Mexico's state capital.
The proximity of Santa Fe to indigenous pueblos spurred missionary activities in the region.
Colonization efforts were primarily initiated by the Franciscan and Jesuit orders through mission establishments.
Spanish military support secured lands for trade and settlements, but few Spanish families settled in Arizona.

Missions were critical in extending Spanish influence and managing frontiers in New Spain.
- Regions affected included Florida, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, and various provinces in Mexico.
Various religious orders such as Franciscans, Jesuits, Augustinians, and Dominicans were involved in mission establishment.
- In Arizona, missions were established primarily by Franciscans and Jesuits.
First missions in Arizona were founded by Franciscans near Hopi villages.
After Santa Fe was founded, three missions were established in northeastern Arizona by 1629:
- Mission San Francisco de Oraibi
- Mission San Bernardo de Aguatubi
- Mission San Bartolomé de Shungópove
The Franciscans aimed to convert the Pueblo people to Catholicism.
- Initially, the Pueblo adapted aspects of Catholicism that aligned with their worldview.
- However, Spanish priests insisted on complete abandonment of traditional practices, which caused resentment.

The Pueblo faced droughts and attacks from local Apache and Navajo, which they associated with Spanish presence.
Pueblo leader Popé spearheaded the movement for a return to indigenous ways, linking spiritual beliefs with the cessation of hardships.
The Pueblo Revolt of 1680:
- A coordinated uprising resulting in the death of over four hundred Spaniards and the ousting of settlers.
- The Spanish lost their foothold until they returned and reasserted control in 1692.
Three missions were destroyed during the revolt, though Mission San Bernardo de Aguatubi was reconstructed in the 1690s.

Tensions escalated in the pueblo of Awatovi between converted and traditional Hopis by 1700.
Resulted in the destruction of the entire pueblo and mission and the killing of all men at Awatovi.

Padre Kino, an Italian Jesuit missionary, was pivotal in the establishment of missions in Pimería Alta (borderlands of Sonora and Arizona).
- Established over 20 missions and visitas.
- Founding missions included:
  - San José de Tumacácori and Los Santos Ángeles de Guevavi (both by 1691).
  - San Xavier del Bac (1692).
- Visitas included San Ignacio de Sonoitac, San Cosme y Damián de Tucsón, and San Cayetano de Calabazas.
Kino was not only a missionary but also an explorer, geographer, cartographer, mathematician, and astronomer.
- Documented interactions with various indigenous groups including the Cocopa and Gila River Pima.
- Introduced new agricultural techniques and livestock, contributing to the local economy.
- Advocated for peaceful coexistence and opposed forced labor, thus earning respect from both Spaniards and indigenous populations.

Missions were designed to be self-sufficient, needing to provide food, shelter, and safety.
Built primarily from local materials (adobe and stone in Pimería Alta).
Most of the labor was provided by indigenous converts living on site or nearby.
Successful missions were typically located among agricultural tribes, while nomadic tribes resisted sedentary lifestyles.
Missions included:
- Church (central place of worship)
- Workshops, kitchens, storerooms, and living quarters for missionaries and converts.
Usually laid out in a quadrangle with an interior area for religious activities.

In 1767, the Jesuit order was expelled due to reforms under the House of Bourbon.
- Missions established by Jesuits were taken over by Franciscans, some missions were abandoned.
New missions in Alta California were established in response to Russian encroachment.
Significant missions established by Padre Junipero Serra included:
- Mission San Fernando Rey de España de Velicata and Mission San Diego de Alcalá (1769).

By 1771, Padre Francisco Garcés established contact with the Quechan, leading to friendships that aided in mission establishment.
Missions established along the Colorado River included:
- Mission Puerto de Purísima Concepción and Mission San Pedro y San Pablo de Bicuñer.
These missions were administratively connected to Tucson area missions despite their focus on California settlement.
However, tensions with the Quechan erupted, leading to the Yuma Revolt (1781):
- Attack on missions and pueblos resulted in significant Spanish casualties, including the deaths of four priests. - The revolt led to cessation of Spanish access to the Yuma Crossing for almost 70 years.

Currently, only Mission San Xavier del Bac remains in use; others are abandoned or in ruins.
- Community efforts are ongoing to restore San Xavier del Bac.

Presidios, or military forts, were established to secure territories and defend settlements and missions.
- Four presidios built in Arizona included:
  - Presidio San Agustín del Tucson
  - Presidio Santa Cruz de Terrenate
  - Presidio San Ignacio de Tubac
  - Presidio de San Bernardino
Each mission cluster typically included a presidio to ensure safety and operational control.

The Spanish government encouraged settlement through land grants tied to cultivation and livestock raising commitments.
- First land grant in Arizona to Don Toribio de Otero in 1789 near Tubac.
Few land grants were made in Arizona prior to Mexican independence in 1821.