Demystifying the Middle East Study Guide: Detailed Summary

History of Saudi Arabia to 1990

  • The Saud Dynasty
    • Initially established a small state near Riyadh.
    • Driven out by Ottomans.
    • Close links with the Wahhabi religious movement (strict Muslim fundamentalist group).
  • Unification of Saudi Arabia
    • Abdulaziz Al Saud unified Saudi Arabia.
    • Unification assisted by the British, who declared a protectorate over Saudi lands.
    • 1925: Saudis gained control of Mecca.
    • 1932: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia proclaimed.
  • Discovery of Oil
    • Oil found in 1938 at Dammam Well Number 7.
    • ARAMCO (Arabian-American Oil Company) established to exploit oil resources; initially owned by U.S. oil companies.
    • Provides extensive wealth for the government and Al Saud family.
  • King Abdulaziz (1932-1953)
    • First ruler of united Saudi Arabia.
    • Polygamous: 45 sons and many daughters; over 1000 grandchildren; massive family.
    • All kings since have been sons of Abdulaziz.
  • King Saud (1953-1964)
    • Successor of King Abdulaziz.
    • Seen as a weak ruler with excessive personal spending and weak leadership.
    • Overthrown by his half-brother Faisal in 1964.
  • King Faisal (1964-1975)
    • Popular and powerful ruler.
    • Great economic growth and active, pro-Western foreign policy.
    • Assassinated by his nephew in 1975.
  • King Khalid (1975-1982)
    • Weaker ruler than Faisal; more decentralized politics.
    • Growth of Islamic fundamentalism and close ties between fundamentalists and the Saudi government.

Saudi Arabia Since 1990

  • The Persian Gulf War
    • Iraq invades Kuwait, threatening Saudi Arabia.
    • King Fahd invites the US & its Allies to use Saudi Arabia as a base to fight Iraq and liberate Kuwait.
    • Over 800,000 Western soldiers occupy Saudi Arabia during the war.
    • The war is a success, and Kuwait regains independence.
  • Islam & the Saudi Royal Family
    • Islamic extremists are critical of the decision to permit foreign, non-Muslim troops into Saudi Arabia.
    • Saudi rulers are stuck between the security interest of needing foreign troops and the political pressure/close historical links to Islamic groups.
    • Crown Prince Abdullah replaced King Fahd after he suffered a stroke in 1995 (Abdullah becomes King in 2005 after Fahd dies).
    • Abdullah was less pro-Western than Fahd.
    • Allegations that he allowed Islamic fundamentalists to attack Western targets in the Middle East (Khobar Towers, US Embassies, USS Cole).
  • Saudi Arabia and 9/11
    • The majority of the 9/11 hijackers were Saudis.
    • Osama bin Laden and many other Al Qaeda leaders were Saudis.
    • Unproven rumors of links between the Saudi government and terrorist figures.
  • King Salman (since 2015)
    • Already elderly when he became King.
    • Crown Prince Muhammad bin Salman (“MBS”) is seen as the most powerful figure in Saudi Arabia today.
    • Son of King Salman; grandson of Abdulaziz.
    • A controversial figure, offers some reforms but also oppresses critics and rivals.

The Gulf States of Kuwait, Qatar, and Bahrain

  • Commonalities
    • All located along the Persian Gulf coast.
    • All have wealth from oil and/or natural gas deposits.
    • All were British protectorates until the 1960s/1970s when they became fully independent.
    • All relatively small by international standards.
      • Kuwait is the largest but only the size of Connecticut & Rhode Island.
    • All have large populations of foreign workers, mostly from south and southeast Asia, who do most of the unpleasant jobs.
    • All are monarchies.
  • Kuwait
    • The most significant moment was being invaded by Iraq in 1990 and subsequently liberated by a US-led alliance in 1991.
    • Considered one of the most liberal/progressive of the countries on the Arabian Peninsula.
      • Women have considerable rights, socially, economically, and politically.
      • There’s an extensive entertainment industry: filmmaking and theater.
      • More flexible interpretation of Islamic law / greater tolerance for those who don’t choose to follow it (especially foreigners).
      • “Semi-Democratic” political system, though the royal family still rules.
        • They abide by the constitution that they wrote and permit regular elections to an advisory parliament.
  • Bahrain
    • Island nation in the Persian Gulf.
    • Historically a center of the Middle Eastern pearl fisheries.
    • Very close ties to Saudi Arabia and the United States.
      • Home of the US Navy’s largest base in the Middle East.
    • Serious concerns about civil liberties in Bahrain.
      • Conflict between the majority Shiite population and the Sunni minority who rule the country, including the royal family.
      • Limited access to outside information: television is largely state controlled and internet censored.
      • Arab Spring-inspired protests in 2011 were met with fierce oppression by the government.
  • Qatar
    • Peninsula jutting into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia.
    • Among the wealthiest nations in the world - conspicuous consumption and displays of wealth.
      • Preparing to host 2018 World Cup (soccer/football).
    • Unpopular with its neighbors, especially Saudi Arabia.
      • Publicly expressing concern about Qatar’s relationship with Islamic fundamentalism and terrorist activities.
      • But is it really more about Qatar’s regional influence and the role played by Qatar-owned Al Jazeera, the largest Arabic television channel and news organization, which competes with the other countries’ own government-operated television stations?

The Desert States of United Arab Emirates (UAE), Oman, and Yemen

  • Commonalities
    • All much larger in area and population than the Gulf States.
    • Like the Gulf States, they had been British protectorates before gaining independence in the 1960s/1970s.
    • Otherwise, there are few commonalities; they’re very different from one another.
  • United Arab Emirates (UAE)
    • Country made up of seven small kingdoms, of which Abu Dhabi and Dubai are by far the most important.
      • The ruler of Abu Dhabi has always been chosen as the President of the UAE.
      • The ruler of Dubai has always been the Prime Minister.
    • Extremely wealthy, but mostly from finance and tourism rather than mineral resources.
      • Airlines like Emirates and Etihad are based in the UAE; a hub for transcontinental travel from Europe/North America to Asia/Pacific Region.
      • Similar to Gulf States in that foreign workers do most of the unpleasant work.
  • Oman
    • Had been the center of a large trading empire in the Indian Ocean during the 18th and early 19th centuries before becoming a British protectorate.
    • Absolute monarchy led by Sultan Qaboos (1970-2020).
      • Came to power in a coup against his father.
      • “Enlightened Despot”.
        • Popular Within Oman as having brought economic growth and domestic reforms: literacy up, unemployment down, life expectancy up, national wealth up, et cetera.
        • Also well-liked/respected internationally as a mediator/intermediary for countries that don’t get along.
      • Uncertain future following his death.
  • Yemen
    • Largest of the Arabian Peninsula countries outside of Saudi Arabia.
    • Only country in the Arabian Peninsula that doesn’t have a king/royal family; it’s a republic which elects its leaders.
      • In practice, the country is in the midst of an ugly civil war, so there’s no internationally recognized government in place.
    • Had been two separate countries from 1967 until 1990.
      • North Yemen was backed by Saudi Arabia and other Arab states along with the US and its allies.
      • South Yemen was a socialist/communist state supported by the Soviet Union until its collapse in 1991.
      • Unification took place in 1990, but regional tensions still persist.
    • 2011 Yemeni Revolution
      • Arab Spring-inspired revolution succeeded in overthrowing Yemen’s long-term leader, President Saleh.
      • Finding a new, stable government proved impossible.
    • 2014-Present: Yemeni Civil War
      • Ongoing conflict within Yemen & the region.
        • Houthi Rebels from northern Yemen have seized the capital city of Sana’a and driven the official government back into South Yemen.
          • Immediate spark = termination of fuel subsides.
          • Underlying issues: ethnicity and religion.
            • Houthis are Shiites, most Yemenis are Shiites.
        • Saudi Arabia has intervened on the side of the government.
          • Airstrikes, missile attacks to support fellow Sunnis against Houthi Shiites (backed by Iran?).
          • Also movements of Al Qaeda & Islamic State within Yemeni territory; trying to reestablish bases.