Science

BIOLOGY FINAL STUDY OUTLINE HI GUYS
Unit 1: Introduction to Biology

1. Scientific Method 

   1. A(n) hypothesis is an explanation for a question or a problem that can be formally tested.

   2. A(n) experiment is an investigation that tests a hypothesis by the process of collecting information under controlled conditions.

   3. Information obtained from your experiment is called data.

   4. Data expressed in numbers are quantitative data.

   5. What step of the scientific method do you accept or reject your hypothesis? conclusion

   6. Using the following hypothesis identify the dependent variable.

               If I eat a pint of chocolate ice cream every day for three weeks, then I will gain 5 pounds.

Using the following hypothesis identify the independent variable.

               If I eat a pint of chocolate ice cream every day for three weeks, then I will gain 5 pounds.

Be able to identify science equipment and units if applicable - Beaker, Graduated cylinder, microscope

7. Scientific hypotheses are most often tested by the process of Claim, Evidence, Reasoning

8. a hypothesis is an educated guess and an If, Then statement

9. What do you do with a hypothesis that does not explain an observation Test it

10. the common steps that scientists use to gather information and answer questions are known as Claim, Evidence, reasoning

Note: 

• The dependent variable is what is being measured and affected in the experiment 

• The independent variable is what you have control over (ex: time)

 Identifying Variables

Example 1

Dr. Imanut wants to examine whether a new drug increases the maze running performance of older rats.  Just like aging humans, older rats show signs of poorer memory for new things.  Dr. Imanut teaches two groups of older rats to find a piece of tasty rat chow in the maze.  One group of rats is given the new drug while they are learning the maze.  The second group is not given the drug.  One week after having learned the maze he retests the rats and records how long it takes them to find the rat chow.

                     a.  independent variable                     b.  dependent variable

         Example 2

A researcher wanted to study the effects of sleep deprivation on physical coordination.  The researcher selected 25 year-old male college students and deprived some of the subjects to either 24, 36, or 45 hours of sleep. 

                     a.  independent variable                       b.  dependent variable

         Example 3

A researcher wanted to know whether the number of people present would influence subjects' judgments on a simple perceptual task.  In each case the other members of the group gave an incorrect answer.  The researcher then noted whether the subject conformed to the group decision.      

                     a.  independent variable                       b.  dependent variable

1. Lab Safety Rules GRACIE

   1. Flammable materials like alcohol should never be dispensed or used near open flame.

   2. Horseplay and practical jokes in the laboratory are never allowed. 

   3. When should approved eye protection devices (such as goggles) be worn in the laboratory? Where physical, biological, chemical hazards are present or whenever there is a chance of an eye injury.

   4. If you do not understand a direction or part of a lab procedure, you should ask a teacher.

   5. What should you do with chemical wastes after completing an experiment? Dispose of the materials correctly

   6. What should you do if a lab experiment is not completed clean up left over materials and track your data, talk to your instructor

1. You are heating a substance in a test tube.  Always point the open end of the tube away from all people.

2. You are heating a piece of glass and now want to pick it up.  What should you do/use? gloves

3. You have been injured in the laboratory (cut, burn, etc.).  First you should tell your instructor.

4. What are some things you should NOT wear in the laboratory? Hair down, loose jewelry, loose clothing

2. Microscopes

   1. How to handle microscope hold it by the base and arm

   2. Parts of the microscope

Eyepiece:

• Also known as the Ocular Lens

• A place to view the specimen

Course Adjustment:

• Fine tunes the focus

• Used with all objective lenses

Fine adjustment:

• Move the stage up and down

• Used only with a low and medium objective lens

Stage Clips:

• These clips hold a slide in Place on the stage for viewing

Light Source:

• Shines light upward through the specimen and to the lenses

Nosepiece: 

• Rotates to change between different object lenses

Objective Lenses:

• 3 or 4 different lens choices ranging from 4X to 40X

• Low (4X) shortest

• Medium (10X)

• High (40X) longest

Stage:

• Holds the slide and has a window that allows light to pass through the specimen

Diaphragm:

• Turns to adjust the amount of light that passes through the specimen

3. CER GRACIE

   1. What it stands for: Claim, Evidence, Reasoning

   2. How to CER

CLAIM

• State the answer to a

question

• State what you will

prove with the evidence

• Provide relevant

background information

EVIDENCE

• Demonstrate

understanding

• Give evidence from the

text

• Cite the author/article

• Give an example

REASONING

• Connect evidence to your

claim

• Explain how your

evidence supports your claim

3. What is its purpose? Framework for making explanations

Ex. Question- Is my dad an alien?

C (Claim)- Her dad is an alien

E (Evidence)- he drives a spaceship, he drinks green juice, 

R (Reasoning)- Her dad is an alien because he drives a spaceship like aliens do and he drinks green juice to get the green pigment that aliens have. 

4. Characteristics of Life GRACIE 

   1. What are the 8 characteristics of life that we discussed? Organization, DNA, Reproduction, Growth, Energy, Response, Regulation, Adaption 

   2. Be able to determine the characteristics of life being described in a scenario. 

5. Properties of Water GRACIE

   1. What is water made of? 1 oxygen, 2 hydrogen

   2. What does polar mean? Unequal sharing of electrons

   3. Which atom(s) pull electrons towards it? electronegative atoms

   4. What are the partial charges of a water molecule? 

Oxygen charge = – (negative charge)

Hydrogen charge = + (positive charge)

Hydrogen bonding = unequal sharing of electrons (gives water the ability to make weak attractions to other water molecules)

5. What type of bond is between water molecules? Hydrogen bond

6. Name the properties of water.

Cohesion: water molecules stick to other water molecules

Adhesion: water sticking to something other than water

Capillary action: tendency of water to move along the surface of a substance due to adhesion.

Surface tension: form of cohesion that cause the surface of water to resist rupture

Universal solvent: water can dissolve many substances due to the partial charges within the water molecule

High Specific Heat: Takes a ;py pf energy to raise the temperature of water

7. Water dissolves many things meaning it is a good solvent.

8. If something is “water-loving” it is called…? Can it dissolve in water? Hydrophilic, yes

9. If something is “water-fearing” it is called…? Can it dissolve in water? Hydrophobic, no

Unit 2: Chemistry of Life

1. Macromolecules

   1. The structure of each (what elements they are made of)

1. Lipids: GRACIE

Elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (CHO)

Function: long term energy storage, forms cell membranes, body insulation

Monomer: glycerol and fatty acids (Triglyceride)

Examples: fats, oils, waxes, steroids (all lipids are hydrophobic)

Fats categories: Saturated (solid) and Unsaturated (liquid)

2. Nucleic Acids: GRACIE

Elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus (CHONP)

Function: stores genetic information

Monomer: nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base)

Polymer: DNA and RNA

Examples: DNA and RNA

Foods that have nucleic acids: All food has nucleic acid (it is not included in the nutritional labels

3. Carbohydrates: GRACIE

Elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (CHO)

Function: energy and structure

Monomer: Monosaccharide (one sugar and glucose)

Polymer: Polysaccharide (many sugars)

Examples: sugar (simple)   starch and fiber (complex)

Foods high in carbs: Grains, Candy, Fruit, Pasta, Bread

Used for: Used for quick energy and for chitin which makes up exoskeleton of insects

Make up: makes up cellulose, which is a large component of plant cell walls

4. Proteins: GRACIE

Elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen (CHON)

Function: cell transport, enzymes, and muscle contraction

Monomer: amino acid (20 different amino acids)

Polymer: Polypeptide chain (has to get folded into proteins)

Examples: insulin, keratin, melanin

Foods high in protein: meats, eggs, nuts and beans

GRACIE

5. the energy molecule of living things - adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

6. All of the following are true about water EXCEPT:  it’s important to living things; it’s polar; it’s an organic molecule; or it causes ionic compounds to dissociate - it’s an organic molecule

7. Proteins that speed up chemical reactions in cells are called enzymes

8. All organic molecules center on which of the following elements? Carbon

9. A single subunit that is used to build larger molecules - monomer

10. The study of the molecules that make up life is biochemistry

11. Genetic information is encoded in molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

12. Lipids perform what roles? long term energy storage, forms cell membranes, body insulation

13. Proteins have a major role in all of the following functions EXCEPT:  storing energy; serving as enzymes; forming structural components of organisms; or all 

Complete the following table.          

14. DNA: T   A  C            T  G  A             T  C  G            A  C  C            C  C  C             A  T  A             A  T  C

mRNA  A   U   G  A   C   U  A   G   C  U   G   G  G   G   G  U   A   U  U   A   G

tRNA ______________________________________________________________________________________

AA  :_______________________________________________________________________________________

15. DNA: T   A   C  C   G   C  T   C   C  G   C   C G   T   C  G   A   C A   A    T A   C   C A   C   T

mRNA: A U G G C G  A G  G C  G G C A G C  U  G U U  A U G G U G  A

tRNA: _____________________________________________________________________________________   

AA: _______________________________________________________________________________________

16.    Transcription is the first step of protein synthesis. It takes place in the nucleus_____ of the cell. During this process, a gene on ___DNA___ is copied into the form of mRNA___(transcript).

17. are protein functions - storing energy

18. A molecule that has a partial positive charge on one side and a partial negative charge on the other side is called a polar molecule

19. Water is important to life because it acts as a solvent, regulates temperature, participates in chemical reactions, supports cell structure, and helps transport nutrients and waste

20. Which of the following characteristics of water is NOT the result of hydrogen bonding? Adhesion; cohesion; capillarity; or hydrolysis -  hydrolysis

21. compounds are substances produced and found in living things: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and Nucleic Acid

22. Name a monosaccharide - glucose 

23. What are the six essential elements of life?

Carbon (C)

Hydrogen (H)

Oxygen (O)

Nitrogen (N)

Phosphorus (P)

Sulfur (S)

24. Which of the following is NOT a lipid? Hormone; oil; monosaccharide; or wax -  monosaccharide

25. The bond between 2 amino acids is called a peptide bond

26. Enzymes

    1. What do they do speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy

    2. Catalyst speeds up chemical reactions

    3. Active Site spot on enzyme where substrate binds to enzyme

    4. Substrates the reactant or thing that binds to enzyme

    5. After an enzyme has completed the reaction, (select the answer below)

       1. it becomes two separate products.

       2. it is changed and cannot be reused and must be removed from the body.

       3. it returns to its original shape, thus making it reusable.

       4. it is used up and more is made by proteins.

    6. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by reducing the activation energy.

    7. An enzyme attaches to a substance called the substrate.

    8. An enzyme attaches to the substrate at the ACTIVE SITE. 

    9. Enzymes can be damaged by: temperature, PH, or inhibitors

    10. The enzyme helps the substrate change into products.

    11. What is the difference between an enzyme and a catalyst?

An enzyme is a biological protein that speeds up specific chemical reactions in living organisms, while a catalyst is any substance (biological or not) that accelerates a chemical reaction without being consumed in the process.

12. Be able to interpret enzyme graphs

Unit 3: Cell Structure & Function

1. Cell Theory

   1. Hooke’s discovery of cells was made by observing corks through his microscope.

   2. Tenets of Cell Theory:

• All living are made up of cells

• cells are the basic unit of life

• cells come from preexisting cells

3. Schwann: concluded that all animals are made of cells

4. Schleiden: concluded that all plants are made of cells

5. Virchow: concluded that new cells could be produced only from the division of existing cells

6. Leeuwenhoek: the first to observe living cells under a microscope; he saw them in pond water and called them "animalcules"

7. The smallest units of life in all living things are cells

8. When the volume of a cell increases, its surface area decreases

9. Surface area is an important factor in limiting cell growth because it affects the cell's ability to exchange materials with its environment efficiently

10. A cell that can change its shape would be well suited for

11. One difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that prokaryotes lack a nucleus, while eukaryotes have a nucleus

12. Only eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus

13. Studying a picture of a cell taken with an electron microscope, you find that the cell has no nucleus and no mitochondria, but it does have a plasma membrane and a cell wall. You conclude that the cell is probably from a prokaryotic organism

14. Cell/Plasma membranes—4 characteristics/functions: regulate what enters and leaves the cell, provide protection and support, communicate with other cells, and act like a barrier

15. The structure that regulates what enters and leaves the cell is called the cell membrane

16. A structure within a cell that performs a specific function is called a(n) organelle

17. A particularly active cell might contain large numbers of mitochondria

18. The Golgi apparatus is an organelle that helps process and package proteins and lipids

19. One important organelle that helps maintain homeostasis by moving supplies from one part of the cell to endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

20. In which of the following organelles is a cell’s ATP produced? mitochondria

21. Numerous hair like organelles that protrude from the surface of a cell and are packed in tight rows are called cilia

22. Proteins are made at the ribosomes

23. The packaging and distribution center of the cell is the Golgi body

24. The double membrane surrounding the nucleus is called the nuclear envelope

25. All cells have what in common? plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes

26. How are chloroplasts like mitochondria? They both manufacture food and release energy and contain DNA

27. The organelles associated with photosynthesis are the chloroplasts

28. The organelles in plant cells that contain a green pigment are the chloroplasts

29. Plant cells have a large membrane-bound space in which water, waste products, and nutrients are stored called a vacuole

30. Plant cells have these structures that animal cells do not: cell walls, chloroplasts, and large central vacuoles

2. Membrane Transport

   1. The process by which water passes into or out of a cell is called Osmosis

   2. When the concentration of the molecules of a substance is the same throughout a space Equilibrium 

   3. The concentration of molecules outside the cell is lower than inside the cell Hypotonic

   4. The concentration of molecules outside the cell is higher than inside the cell Hypertonic

   5. The concentration of molecules inside and outside the cell are equal Isotonic

   6. Difference in the concentration of molecules across a space Concentration gradient

   7. The bursting of cells: Cytolysis

   8.  Energy is needed to move particles through the membrane: Active transport

   9.  What are two distinct differences between active and passive transport?

• Active transport requires energy (ATP), while passive transport does not.

• Active transport moves particles against the concentration gradient, while passive transport moves particles down the concentration gradient.

10.  Transport of large particles or whole cells into a cell? Endocytosis

11.  If a saltwater plant were placed in pond water, the cells would Swell 

12. Does active transport move up or down the concentration gradient? Up (against) the concentration gradient.

Unit 4: Cell Cycle

1. Stages of Mitosis:

Prophase (prepare):

• Nucleus disappears

• Spindle fibers form

• DNA condenses into chromosomes (sister chromatids)

Metaphase (middle):

• Chromosomes align along the middle of the cell

• Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes by the centromere

Anaphase (apart):

• Chromosomes separate at the centromere and move apart

• Chromosomes are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers

Telophase (two):

• Chromosomes unwind into thin strands of DNA chromatin

• spindle fibers disappear

• Nuclear membrane reappears as 2 nuclei are formed

Cytokinesis (not technically part of mitosis):

• Actual division of the cell membrane

• Animal cells pinch apart while plant cells form a cell plate

2. The purpose of spindle fibers is To pull the chromosomes from the middle of the cell to opposite sides

3. The production of offspring from 1 parent is Asexual reproduction.

4. The end product of mitosis is Two new nuclei in one cell

5. What happens during interphase? The growth phase. 90% of a cell’s life is spent in interphase. Stages are G1 (Gap 1): growth and make proteins, S (Synthesis): DNA Replication, and G2 (Gap 2): more growth and organelles replicate

6. In order to fit within a cell, DNA becomes more compact by proteins being added. 

7. Chromatids are a loose form of DNA.

8. A diploid Cell is one that has two complete sets of chromosomes. 

9. How is mitosis related to genetic continuity (continuity means “the same.”)? Mitosis is used to produce daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cells.

10. Be able to identify the stage of mitosis based off of a picture or description.

11. Be able to predict what would happen if certain stages of mitosis did not occur properly. It can lead to unequal distribution of chromosomes between daughter cells, causing genetic disorders (like Down syndrome), cell death, or uncontrolled cell growth (cancer). 

12. Cell Regulation and Cancer:

    1. Throughout the cell’s cycle, there are built in Checkpoints that are designed to be a check and balance system for the cell. What do these checkpoints look for?  These checkpoints look for if the cell is growing replicating DNA and cell functions. 

    2. Growth factors are proteins that stimulate cell division.

    3. Programmed cell death is known as apoptosis.

    4. What is cancer? Uncontrolled cell division.

    5. Cancer cells form disorganized clumps called tumors.

    6. What is a carcinogen? Substances that are known to cause or lead to cancer.

13. Stem Cells:

    1. What is a stem cell? A cell with no specific function

    2. What is cell differentiation? Process that gives cells a specific function

14. Name that phase.                                                                                                    

    1. chromosomes arranged along the equator  Metaphase                                              

    2. division of the cytoplasm   Cytokinesis                                                                     

    3. chromosomes coil up into rods; the nucleus disappears Prophase                                 

    4. cleavage furrow present; nucleus begins to reform Telophase                         

    5. separation of sister chromatids  Anaphase                                                              

    6. includes a period of growth, copying of DNA, and preparation for mitosis Interphase

15. Which of the following shows the correct sequence of the cell cycle? 

16. A typical human cell contains 46 chromosomes.  After mitosis & cell division, each of the 2 new cells will contain 46 chromosomes, identical to the original parent cell

17. As a result of mitosis, each of the two new cells produced from the original cell receives A complete and identical set of chromosomes

18. Mitosis is a process by which the nucleus becomes 2 nuclei and chromosomes divide

19. Briefly explain the following stages of the cell cycle. Don’t just tell what letters stand for, What is happening?

Interphase: cells grow and duplicate their internal structures

Prophase: nucleus disappears, spindle fibers form, DNA condenses into chromosomes

Metaphase: chromosomes align along the middle of the cell. Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes. 

Anaphase: chromosomes split at the centromere and move apart. Chromosomes are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers. 

Telophase: Chromosomes unwind into thin strands of DNA (chromatin). Spindle fibers disappear. Nuclear membrane reappears as 2 nuclei are formed. 

Cytokinesis: Actual division if the cell membrane. Animal cells pinch apart while plant cells form a cell plate. 

20. What phase are each cell in?  a. Prophase b. Metaphase c. Interphase d. Telophase e. Anaphase

Unit 5: Energy Flow

1. Photosynthesis:

   1. What is photosynthesis? Photosynthesis is the process in which organisms use energy from sunlight to make the sugar, glucose. 

   2. What types of organisms do photosynthesis? Plants, bacteria, and some protists

   3. What are the parts of the chloroplast? Be able to label these parts. Thylakoids-coin shaped membrane that contains chlorophyll.  Grana-stacks of thylakoids. Stroma-fluid that surrounds the thylakoids. 

   4. What is chlorophyll and why is it important? A green pigment that absorbs light energy. 

   5. How do gases enter and exit the leaves of plants? Stomata

   6. What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis? sunlight+6CO2 + 6H2O —-> C6H12O6 + 6O2

   7. What are the products? Glucose and oxygen

   8. What are the reactants? Light energy, carbon dioxide, and water

   9. What are the two main stages of photosynthesis and where do they take place? Light-dependent reactions (thylakoids). Light-Independent reactions/Calvin Cycle (Stroma)

   10. What happens in the light reactions? Light-dependent reactions chlorophyll absorbs the energy from sunlight and it is transferred to ATP and NADPH. Water is split and oxygen is released. 

   11. What is produced in the light reactions that goes to the Calvin cycle? ATP and NADPH

   12. What happens in the Calvin cycle? Carbon dioxide and energy from light dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) are used to make sugar, glucose. 

   13. Why is photosynthesis important? Photosynthesis is important because it converts light energy to a form that organisms can use which is chemical energy. 

2. Cellular Respiration:

   1. What is cellular respiration? During cellular respiration glucose will be converted into a form cells can use (ATP)

   2. Which organisms do cellular respiration? Plants, animals, and all other eukaryotes

   3. What is ATP? (Adenosine triphosphate) energy carrying molecules of cells to power all types of cell processes. 

4. What are the parts of a mitochondrion? Be able to label them. 

5. What is the chemical equation for cellular respiration? C6H12O6 + 6O2 + ATP + 6CO2 + 6H2O

6. What are the reactants of cellular respiration? Glucose and oxygen

7. What are the products of cellular respiration? ATP, Carbon dioxide, and water

8. What are the three main stages of cellular respiration? Where do they take place? Glycolysis: cytoplasm, Krebs cycle: mitochondria matrix, and electron transport chain: inner membrane

9. What happens during glycolysis? Glucose is broken down into 2 pieces (pyruvate) that enter go in Krebs cycle, a little ATP is made, and electrons go to ETC. 

10. What happens during the Krebs cycle? The rest of glucose is broken down and electrons are extracted to go to ETC.  A little ATP is made. 

11. What happens during the electron transport chain? Energy transferred in a chain of proteins. Proteins use the energy to pump hydrogen ions against the membrane. ATP is created and water is formed. 

12. What are the molecules that carry electrons to the electron transport chain? NADH and FADH

13. How many ATP molecules are produced during glycolysis? Krebs cycle? ETC? Glycolysis: 2 ATP, Krebs cycle: 2 ATP, and ETC: 32 ATP

3. Types of Fermentation: 

   1. What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Aerobic uses oxygen and anaerobic doesn’t use oxygen. 

   2. What types of organisms do anaerobic respiration? Bacteria and archaea (some prokaryotes)

   3. What is a byproduct of lactic acid fermentation? 2 ATP and 2 lactic acid

   4. What is a byproduct of alcoholic fermentation? CO2, 2 ATP, and Ethanol

   5. Which is more efficient: cellular respiration or fermentation? Why? Cellular respiration, because it produces more ATP than fermentation. 

4. Flow of Energy:

   1. Why is a pyramid shape used to represent energy and biomass? A pyramid shape is used to represent energy and biomass because as you go up the pyramid gets smaller and as you go up on the energy pyramid the amount of energy and the number of organisms decrease. 

   2. How does energy flow through each level of an energy pyramid? 90% of energy is lost as you go up the pyramid, you only gain 10% of energy. 

   3. How do autotrophs acquire energy? Heterotrophs? Autotrophs acquire energy from the sun.  Heterotrophs acquire energy from other organisms. 

4. Be able to interpret a food chain/food web.

5. Suppose a producer contains 9234 J of energy. How much energy will be consumed by the primary consumer? Secondary consumer? Tertiary consumer?  Primary consumers will get 923.4 J of energy. Secondary consumers will get 92.34 J of energy.  Tertiary consumers will get 9.234 J of energy. 

6. What are the 4 types of heterotrophs? What do they consume? Herbivore (eats plants), carnivores (eats meat), omnivores (eats plants and animals), and detritivores (decomposers)

7. If only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, where does the other 90% go?  It is lost as heat. 

Unit 6: Genetics

1. A nucleotide is a monomer of DNA.

2. Know the structure of the nucleotide and be able to draw it. 

3.  The four nitrogenous bases of DNA are the organic ring structures called adenine, guanine, cytosine and                                                                                      thymine.

4. The shape of DNA is a double helix.

5.  In the DNA "ladder" structure, the sides are composed of Phosphate and Sugar

6. The process by which a DNA molecule is copied is called DNA Replication

7. DNA replicates by base pairing, giving two exact copies of the genetic code of an organism.

8. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose, but RNA contains ribose.

9. The nitrogen base that is NOT present  in RNA is Thymine (T)

10. The rungs of the DNA "ladder" is composed of Nitrogenous bases (ATGC) 

11. The enzyme responsible for unzipping a DNA strand during replication Helicase

12.  The enzyme that aids in pairing the complementary bases to DNA in replication is DNA Polymerase

13. Replicate the following strand.          A  T  G  C  G  C  A  T  T  A  T  A  G  C  A TACGCGTAATATCGT

14. Why is DNA replication important? DNA replication is important because it makes it possible for cells to divide into identical cells

15.  Draw and label DNA include a nucleotide

    1.  Use the letter P to label all of the phosphate groups.

    2. Use an S to label all the sugar molecules.

    3. For labeling the nitrogen bases, use A. T. G, and C.