Film History: Frame Rate, Film Stock, and Early Cinema (Notes)

Frame rate, persistence of vision, and how we perceive film

• The basic idea: frame rate creates an optical illusion of movement. The number of frames shown per second drives the perceived motion on screen.
• 24 frames per second (fps) is considered the most pleasing and natural for human perception when watching traditional film, including how shutter speed interacts with perception. The typical discussion point is that 24 fps works well for “persistence of vision” to create smooth motion.
• When filmmakers experiment with higher frame rates (e.g., The Hobbit in theaters at 48 fps), audiences can experience motion that feels faster than what they’re used to at 24 fps, which can cause dizziness or nausea for some viewers.
• The key takeaway: frame rate matters for comfort, immersion, and the visual character of a film.

The Hobbit example and the rise of different frame rates

• Peter Jackson directed The Hobbit and released it at $48 ext{ FPS}$.
• Viewers, including the speaker, reported sickness or nausea in theaters, highlighting how moving away from the familiar 24 fps can affect viewing experience.
• This example raises questions about what frame rate should be used and why 24 fps became a standard.

How film is actually shown: the physical medium and the shutter

• Traditional film was shown from film stock—reels with perforations on the sides to guide the movement through projectors.
• The optical soundtrack is also side-mounted on the film.
• A simple film camera uses a shutter to expose frames at the chosen rate; an example description mentions a sequence like “one, two, three” to illustrate shutter action.
• This mechanism underpins persistence of vision: rapid frame changes create the illusion of continuous motion.
• Common discussion points include the relationship between shutter angle, exposure, and motion portrayal.

Film stock formats and their significance

• The long-time standard for shooting on film stock was 35 mm.
• Some productions use 70 mm stock, which yields a larger, brighter, and crisper image.
• Notable directors who favor 70 mm include Christopher Nolan and Quentin Tarantino; Nolan’s work with large-format film is highlighted.
• Nolan’s films (e.g., Oppenheimer) are associated with IMAX or large-format screening formats; he’s noted for choosing film stock in some projects.
• The next line of discussion notes that Nolan’s film Oppenheimer was presented with IMAX 70 mm imagery, offering a high level of immersion when projected on suitable screens.
• The advantages of 70 mm / IMAX: higher potential image quality and a more immersive viewing experience, but the limitation is whether theaters can properly screen that format.

IMAX 70 mm and the realities of exhibition

• IMAX 70 mm is described as the highest quality imaging format ever defined, offering a significant sense of immersion.
• However, many theaters lack equipment to properly screen 70 mm/IMAX, limiting where audiences can experience that level of quality.
• When films shot on 70 mm/IMAX are shown in non-IMAX venues, the image cannot be maximized, and audiences may be charged more for specialized screenings.

Digital versus film: how modern films are captured and displayed

• Today, most films are shot digitally due to cost and practical considerations.
• Directors differ: some (like Christopher Nolan) shoot on actual film; others shoot digitally and rely on digital workflows for post-production and effects.
• The transfer from film to digital (when applicable) is discussed, with a note that some directors prefer not to translate to digital at all.
• Examples discussed:
  • Jurassic World: Rebirth (modern film mentioned) was shot on film, illustrating that high-profile productions still use traditional stock.
  • In contrast, many Marvel films are shot digitally, reflecting a different approach to visual effects and editing efficiency.
• The trade-offs are framed around aesthetics vs. practicality: film stock can yield a textured, vibrant look; digital can offer cost efficiency and easier post-production for heavy CGI.
• A central claim: for an old-school look, film stock is favored because of its texture and color rendition; digital can feel more computer-generated when overused.

The magic of film stock: texture, color, and realism

• Film stock is not a perfect representation of reality; it’s a “better version of reality” that filmmakers chase to achieve a preferred aesthetic.
• The texture and color fidelity of film can enhance greens, landscapes, and overall image quality in ways that many viewers find more appealing than digital captures.
• The storytelling process benefits from the “magic” of film stock—gradings, color grading, and the ability to shape the mood of scenes in ways that filmmakers grew up loving.
• Notable perspectives from filmmakers emphasize that the cinematic look of film comes from the stock itself, the lenses, and the physical process of capturing light.

Early devices that explored persistence of vision before film

• Phonetic histoscope (invented by Joseph Plutzow, 1832): an early device exploring persistence of vision and motion illusion.
• Zoetrope: a drum with a circle of images that, when spun, creates the illusion of motion as the viewer looks through slots.
  • The zoetrope is described as a clear, accessible explanation of animation’s core idea: the rapid presentation of individual images creates movement.
  • Studio Ghibli’s three-dimensional zoetrope uses sculptures rather than drawings, driven by a strobe light to create the illusion of motion in space.
• Praxinoscope: an evolution combining elements of the zoetrope and kinetoscope with drums, mirrors, strips, and a magic lantern to project motion for an audience.
• The progression from zoetrope to praxinoscope to projection devices shows the development of pre-film animation and motion-picture presentation.

The birth of photography and moving pictures

• The earliest images were captured on silver plates using light-sensitive chemicals (heliographs) by innovators such as Niepce and Daguerre (daguerreotypes).
• These still photographs laid the groundwork for motion pictures because motion is built from a sequence of still images.
• Muybridge (Eadweard Muybridge), in 1878, produced a famous sequence of images showing a horse in motion; this work is pivotal for understanding early motion capture.
  • Muybridge’s work is often cited as an early step toward motion pictures, with multiple photographs arranged in sequence to depict movement.
• The evolution of film stock moves from glass plates and paper film toward flexible celluloid, allowing longer sequences and more practical motion capture.
• Eastman and Kodak (George Eastman) developed film stock in 1884, a milestone that enabled reliable, usable film stock for widespread production.
• Edison and Dixon contributed to the early mechanical development of motion pictures:
  • The Kinetoscope, an early viewing device, allowed individuals to observe films in a parlour setting, an early form of exhibition.
  • Edison opened the Black Maria, the first film studio in New Jersey, designed to maximize natural light with a retractable roof and swiveling housing for live shooting.
• The Kinetoscope era marked the first public exhibition of motion pictures, though it was primarily an individual viewing experience rather than a large-screen public display.

The Lumière brothers and the first public screenings

• Auguste and Louis Lumière developed the cinematograph, a hand-cranked device capable of recording and projecting images.
• The cinematograph could project onto a wall, making it a more portable and practical device than the kinetoscope, and enabled broader public screenings.
• Early subjects included observational, documentary-style footage of everyday life, work, and daily activities.
• Famous early clips include the Train Arriving at the Station, which is often cited as a landmark moment illustrating the novelty of motion pictures for audiences who hadn’t seen moving pictures before.
• The Lumières demonstrated that audiences could experience motion on a screen with a shared viewing experience, which helped propel cinema toward mass appeal.
• The early works of the Lumière brothers are described as observational/documentary in nature, focusing on real-life scenes rather than staged narratives.

Narrative cinema and the arrival of Georges Méliès

• Georges Méliès introduced narrative filmmaking, expanding beyond mere observation to storytelling with cinema.
• Méliès was a former magician who brought stage tricks and special effects to film, pioneering techniques that became staples of cinema.
• Key contributions from Méliès include:
  • Stop-motion animation
  • Splicing and cutting (early editing)
  • Perspective tricks and multiple exposures
  • Jump cuts and other editing innovations
• Méliès’s studio employed a glass-walled setup with an emphasis on light and space to support more elaborate effects.
• He used techniques such as double exposure to layer images and create magical effects.
• The arrival of narrative cinema raises important questions about what film should do: document reality versus tell stories and create fantasy.
• Méliès’s work is often cited as foundational for early fantasy and science fiction genres, as well as for the exploration of cinematic storytelling as a separate art form.
• The film Trip to the Moon (Le Voyage dans la Lune) is highlighted as a prominent example of early narrative cinema and special effects, consisting of roughly 30 scenes and notable for its pioneering effects.

Visual storytelling, structure, and the questions around genre

• The Lumière operation is framed as observational/documentary, while Méliès introduces narrative storytelling with imaginative use of effects.
• This contrast prompts reflection on the purposes of film: are films primarily documentary records, or can they be vehicles for fantasy, science fiction, and inventive storytelling?
• The discussion invites learners to analyze the components of early films and consider how genres emerge from the language of cinema (editing, visual tricks, set design, and narrative structure).

Practical implications and classroom takeaways

• The material contrasts film as a technology with film as an art form: technology shapes what is possible and how audiences experience cinema.
• The frame rate discussion shows how technical choices (frame rate, shutter, and projection) affect viewer comfort, perception, and storytelling style.
• The debate between film and digital highlights how production choices influence aesthetics, editing workflows, costs, and accessibility.
• The historical arc from Edison/Kinetoscope to Lumière/Cinematograph to Méliès demonstrates how technology enables new forms of exhibition and storytelling and prompts ongoing questions about the purpose of cinema.
• The ethical and philosophical implications touch on the nature of realism in representation, the magic of cinema, and the responsibilities of filmmakers in shaping viewer perception through aesthetics.

Quick-reference recap of key terms and figures

• Frame rate and persistence of vision:
  • Frame rate: $ext{frames per second}$; standard is $24 ext{ FPS}$; higher rates like $48 ext{ FPS}$ tested in The Hobbit.
  • Persistence of vision: the brain integrates successive images into continuous movement.
• Film stock formats:
  • $35 ext{ mm}$ (standard long-running stock), $70 ext{ mm}$ (larger, brighter, crisper image).
  • IMAX as a high-end presentation format; IMAX 70 mm offers maximum image quality but requires compatible screens.
• Notable people and devices:
  • Phonetic histoscope (Joseph Plutzow, 1832)
  • Zoetrope (early animation device)
  • Praxinoscope (advance on zoetrope)
  • Kinetoscope (Edison, with Dixon)
  • Black Maria (Edison’s first film studio)
  • Lumière brothers (cinematograph)
  • Georges Méliès (narrative cinema, special effects, Trip to the Moon)
  • Muybridge (1878 horse motion studies)
  • Eastman/Kodak (film stock development)
• Modern examples and practices:
  • Jurassic World: Rebirth (shot on film in some cases; contrast with digitally-shot blockbuster franchises)
  • Digital versus film aesthetics; the role of lenses, color grading, and texture in achieving a cinematic look

Note on the planned screening

• The lesson plans to screen Georges Méliès’s Trip to the Moon at the end of class to illustrate early narrative techniques and special effects in action.
• The discussion invites students to critically analyze the emerging language of cinema and its historical development from observational footage to crafted storytelling.