liberalism

Liberalism

Background (older roots)

 Humans are equal: unlike realism which believes in the hierarchical structure of

humans. That some people are ‘better’ than others, thus should not be regarded on the

same level

 Humans pursue their own interest: although this sounds very similar to realist view

on self-interest, it is not the same. For older liberals, everything is not about the state,

but individuals also have ability to pursue their own interest if given the opportunity.

Realists argued that states are always driven by self-interest, but liberals say

individuals should be allowed to pursue their own interest. Interests like self-worth,

happiness, economic enhancement, and cooperation

 Humans do cooperate: unlike realists who believe in the anarchic nature of

individuals

 Economic power is important to humans: military power is not the only thing that is

important to humans. States need economic power too

Founders/Thinkers

 John Locke:

o was an English philosopher who had developed a theory of political authority

based on natural individual rights and the consent of the governed

o the consent of the governed, for him, should be carried out by the system of

the majority rule, whereby the government would do the will of the

electorates, that means through voting

o this consent, for Locke, was necessary for a government to remain legitimate

o also, he believed in creating a state that protects people’s rights by enforcing

natural law and acting as a neutral arbitrator when people have disputes

o these natural laws are to protect people’s rights of ‘life, liberty, and property’

 Immanuel Kant:

o Was a German philosopher who based his liberalism on the idea of freedom

from other people’s choices and universal rationality

o He argued that all people have a fundamental dignity as rational and moral

beings, which obligates us to act accordingly and to respect the dignity of

others

o Thus, for him, the existence of the state is to ensure that individuals enjoy

‘freedom, as long as it can coexist with the freedom of every other in

accordance with a universal law’

o For example, freedom of speech, religion, and the right to pursue happiness in

anyway a person wants, if it is consistent with everybody else being able to do

the same.

 Adam Smith:

o was a Scottish economist and philosopher who argued that societies prosper

when individuals are free to pursue their self-interest within an economic

system based on private ownership of the means of production and

competitive markets, not controlled by neither the state nor by private

monopolies

o in 1776 he published a book called “the Wealth of Nations”, which provided

ideas on how the state can enhance economic activities without governmental

dominance

o the book further discussed the importance of economic power and freedom for

humans without strict governmental control

o he believed that society works best when the people are left alone to handle

themselves

So, with these in mind, taking ideas from the founders, here are some thinkers of liberalism:

 John Ikenbery:

o Is an international relations theorist who focuses on the liberal international

order

o He believes in the foreign policy doctrine that supports international

institutions (just like Keohane), open markets, cooperative security, and liberal

democracy

o The goal of this theory is to achieve global structures within the international

system that are inclined towards promoting a liberal world order

o It holds that states should participate in international institutions that uphold

rule-based norms, and facilitate cooperation on transnational problems

 Robert Keohane:

o He is widely associated with the theory of neoliberal institutionalism in IR

o He believes that patterns of cooperation and discord can be understood only in

the context of institutions that help define the meaning and importance of state

action

o That the ability of states to cooperate depends on human constructed

institutions, which vary historically and across issues, in nature and in strength

o States are at the centre of interpretation of world politics as they are for

realists. However, for neoliberal Institutionalist, formal and informal rules

play a much larger role

o For him, liberal institutionalists do not see the world from a place of hierarchy,

but rather that interstate cooperation occur on the basis of significant common

interests

o Argues that institutions push states away from war and promotes peace

Reaction to Realism

 Liberals believe that Realist understanding of security was too simplistic and security

has non-military dimension. So, there is the economic and social factors to security

 Realist understanding of IR is outdated and inadequate in addressing the complexities

of issues in especially post-Cold war era.

o Simultaneous process of integration (created by globalization) and the

disintegration of states (caused by nationalism and cultural irredentism) in the

post-CW era.

o Underestimate growing influence of supra- and non-state actors in IR, like

international NGOs.

 States are no longer sole actors, there are some domestic considerations:

o Democratic states are more likely to settle disagreements amicably.

o Public opinion will restrain leaders who are inclined towards war, we see these

when the people rally to protest some of their country’s foreign policies

Realism cannot account for progress in relations between nations, lack of war

between states, for example.

 Realists underestimated economic cooperation and trade.

Components of Liberal IR theory

 States serve their interests by cooperation.

 Shared values advance cooperation. Liberals argue that cooperation is solid among

democracies.

o Mature democracies, especially when working together through effective

institutions, support evidence that democratic institutions and values help

states cooperate.

o The rule of law and transparency of democratic processes make it easier to

sustain international cooperation, especially when these practices are

enshrined in multilateral institutions.

o The international system will be peaceful if all states are democratic.

 International trade and other economic interactions restrain states from resorting to

violence and military action.

 Liberal institutionalists believe in the use of international institutions in promoting

cooperation:

o Institutions facilitate cooperation.

o Institutions provide information.

o They provide a forum for the peaceful resolution of disagreements

o For example, with the case of NATO and the then European Community

(which is now the EU), realists had incorrectly forecasted their imminent

decline - stating that it was the threat of the Soviet Union that held NATO

together, without the threat of the Soviet Union looming, NATO will

disintegrate as the United States will abandon it, he casted the same fate upon

the then European Community – yet the opposite occurred, the European

Union and NATO have both increased their membership. Also, we see that

states invest significant economic and military resources into these institutions

to facilitate cooperation. This contradicts realist’s argument that states only

seek their self-interest and that the international arena is anarchic in nature.

So, for institutional liberalism, due to the interconnectedness of these

organisations’ cooperation is fostered.

Types of Liberalism

 Classical liberalism: focuses on liberty and limited government intervention

 New liberalism: advocates for social welfare and equality

 Neo-liberalism: promotes free markets and deregulation

 Utilitarianism: seeks to maximize happiness and minimize suffering