BIO 102: General Survey of Plant and Animal Kingdoms

Founders: Aristotle ( $384$ - $322$ BC) made the first classification attempt; Linnaeus ( $1707$ - $1778$ ) developed the modern binomial system.
Taxonomy/Systematics: The study of classification principles.
Hierarchy levels (Highest to Lowest): Kingdom, Phylum or Division (Plants), Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
Species: The smallest unit; identical in appearance, capable of mating to produce fertile offspring.
Binomial Nomenclature: Organisms are named by Genus (capitalized) and species (lowercase), written in italics or underlined. Examples: Pawpaw (Carica Papaya), Lizard (Agama agama).

Whittaker ( $1969$ ) proposed the current five-kingdom model based on cellular organization and nutrition:

Monera (Prokaryotes): Single-celled, no true nucleus. Examples: Bacteria, Blue-green algae.
Protista (Eukaryotes): Larger single-celled organisms with definite nuclei. Examples: Amoeba, Chlamydomonas.
Fungi: Non-motile, plant-like but lacking chlorophyll; absorb nutrients via hyphae. Examples: Mushrooms, Yeast.
Plantae: Multicellular autotrophs using photosynthesis.
Animalia: Multicellular heterotrophs.

Classification: Divided into Thallophytes (Algae), Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms.
Algae (Thallophyta): Simple aquatic plants lacking roots/stems; contain chlorophyll and cellulose cell walls. Examples: Spirogyra (filamentous), Volvox (colonial).
Bryophytes: Non-vascular land plants (Liverworts and Mosses); require water for fertilization. Example: Funaria.
Pteridophytes: Vascular plants (Tracheophytes) that reproduce via spores; known as "cryptogams." Example: Pteris vittata.
Gymnosperms: "Naked seeds" not enclosed in fruit. Examples: Conifers, Pines, Ginkgo biloba.
Angiosperms: Flowering plants with seeds enclosed in fruits; subdivided into Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. Total approximately $300,000$ known species.

Protozoa: Microscopic, acellular organisms. Amoeba uses pseudopodia for locomotion and contractile vacuoles for osmoregulation.
Porifera: Sponges; asymmetrical pore-bearers with flagellated choanocytes. Example: Leucosolenia.
Coelenterata (Cnidaria): Radially symmetrical with two forms: sedentary Polyps and free-swimming Medusae. Example: Hydra.
Platyhelminthes: Flatworms; triploblastic and acoelomate. Examples: Fasciola hepatica (Liver fluke), Taenia solium (Tapeworm).
Annelida: Segmented worms with a true coelom and nephridia for excretion. Examples: Earthworm, Leeches.
Mollusca: Soft-bodied with a mantle and muscular foot. Groups: Bivalvia (Oysters), Cephalopoda (Octopus), Gastropoda (Snail).
Arthropoda: The largest phylum ( $80\%$ of animals). Features: Chitinous exoskeleton and jointed appendages. Classes includes Crustacea, Insecta, Arachnida, and Myriapoda.
Echinodermata: Marine animals with pentamerous radial symmetry and a water vascular system. Example: Starfish.

General Features: Bilateral symmetry, endoskeleton with a vertebral column, and a dorsal spinal cord.
Pisces (Fishes): Poikilothermic (cold-blooded) aquatic organisms with gills, scales, and fins. Bony fish possess a swim bladder for buoyancy.
Amphibia: Transition from water to land. Adults use lungs/skin for respiration; larvae (tadpoles) use gills. Examples: Toads, Frogs.
Reptilia: Truly terrestrial with dry scales and amniotic eggs (containing amnion and allantois). Examples: Lizards, Snakes.
Aves (Birds): Homoiothermic (warm-blooded) with feathers and forelimbs modified into wings for flight. Bones are light/fused; teeth are replaced by a beak.
Mammalia: Most advanced class; characterized by hair, mammary glands, a diaphragm, and specialized teeth. Most are viviparous (giving birth to live young).

Differentiate between Bryophytes and Tracheophytes: Bryophytes lack a vascular system and roots, while Tracheophytes (Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms) possess vessels (xylem and phloem) for conducting water and food.
Algal Types Identification:
1. Green Algae: Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas.
2. Algae: Fucus, Sargassum.
3. Golden-Brown Algae: Synura.
4. Yellow-Green Algae: Vaucheria.
How are Conifers terrestrially adapted? They possess scented resin for protection, needle-like leaves with thick waxy coatings to prevent water loss, and sunken stomata.
Distinguishing features of Protozoa: They are acellular, microscopic, and require moisture. Locomotion occurs via pseudopodia, flagella, or cilia. Nutrition can be holozoic, holophytic, or parasitic.
Invertebrates vs. Vertebrates: Vertebrates always have a living endoskeleton (bone/cartilage), closed circulatory systems with hemoglobin in red corpuscles, and eyes developed from the brain, whereas Invertebrates often have non-living exoskeletons and ventral nerve cords.m̀

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