Motivation — Intrinsic vs Extrinsic, Self-Determination Theory
1. WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
1.1 Definition
Motivation is the direction and intensity of effort (Sage, 1977). It refers to the internal and external forces that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior toward a goal.
Two key components:
Direction — WHAT you choose to do (approach or avoid certain activities)
Intensity — HOW MUCH effort you put into that activity
1.2 Why Motivation Matters in Sport
Motivation is fundamental to athletic success because it determines:
Whether an athlete participates at all
How hard they train
How long they persist through difficulty
Whether they continue long-term
Quality of engagement and learning
Response to setbacks and challenges
1.3 Key Questions About Motivation
Question | Focus |
|---|---|
WHY do people participate? | Sources and reasons for involvement |
WHY do people drop out? | Barriers and demotivators |
WHAT motivates sustained effort? | Factors maintaining engagement |
HOW can motivation be enhanced? | Interventions and strategies |
2. VIEWS OF MOTIVATION
2.1 Three General Views
View | Core Belief | Implications |
|---|---|---|
Trait-centered | Motivation is primarily due to personality and individual differences | Some people are just "more motivated" |
Situation-centered | Motivation is primarily due to environmental and situational factors | The right environment motivates anyone |
Interactionist | Motivation results from interaction between person and situation | Most widely accepted in sport psychology |
2.2 The Interactionist Approach
Motivation = Person × Situation
Neither personality alone nor situation alone fully explains motivation. The interaction matters:
Same person in different situations → Different motivation levels
Same situation with different people → Different motivation levels
Best fit = Match between person's needs and situational opportunities
3. INTRINSIC vs EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
3.1 Definitions
Type | Definition | Driven By |
|---|---|---|
Intrinsic Motivation | Engaging in activity for its own sake, for inherent satisfaction and enjoyment | Internal factors: fun, interest, challenge, mastery |
Extrinsic Motivation | Engaging in activity to obtain external rewards or avoid punishments | External factors: money, trophies, praise, avoiding criticism |
3.2 Intrinsic Motivation
Core Characteristics
Activity is inherently rewarding
No external reward needed
Driven by interest, enjoyment, curiosity
Associated with autonomy and choice
Leads to deep engagement and flow states
Types of Intrinsic Motivation
Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
To experience stimulation | Seeking fun, excitement, sensory pleasure | "I love the rush of sprinting" |
To know | Desire to learn, understand, explore | "I enjoy learning new techniques" |
To accomplish | Satisfaction from mastering challenges | "I love the feeling when I finally nail a skill" |
Benefits of Intrinsic Motivation
Benefit | Explanation |
|---|---|
Sustained engagement | Don't need constant external rewards to continue |
Greater effort | Work harder because they WANT to |
Better learning | More engaged, deeper processing |
Persistence | Continue through difficulty because activity itself is rewarding |
Creativity | More willing to experiment and take risks |
Wellbeing | Greater enjoyment and life satisfaction |
Long-term commitment | Less likely to drop out |
3.3 Extrinsic Motivation
Core Characteristics
Activity is a means to an end
External reward or outcome is the goal
Behavior contingent on external factors
Varies in degree of internalization
Types of External Rewards
Reward Type | Examples |
|---|---|
Tangible rewards | Money, trophies, medals, prizes, scholarships |
Social rewards | Praise, recognition, status, attention, approval |
Negative reinforcement | Avoiding punishment, criticism, or negative consequences |
Potential Benefits of Extrinsic Motivation
Benefit | When It Helps |
|---|---|
Initiates behavior | Gets people started, especially in new activities |
Maintains behavior short-term | Keeps people engaged when intrinsic motivation is low |
Provides feedback | External recognition confirms competence |
Structures goals | Competitions and rewards provide targets |
Potential Problems with Extrinsic Motivation
Problem | Explanation |
|---|---|
Undermining effect | External rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation |
Dependence | May only participate when rewards are available |
Reduced persistence | Quit when rewards stop |
Shallow engagement | Do minimum needed for reward |
Controlling feeling | Feel pressured rather than autonomous |
Dropout risk | If rewards don't match expectations |
3.4 The Undermining Effect (Cognitive Evaluation Theory)
Key finding: Providing external rewards for intrinsically motivating activities can REDUCE intrinsic motivation.
How It Works
Intrinsically motivated activity → External reward introduced →
Perceived cause shifts from internal to external →
"I'm doing this for the reward, not because I enjoy it" →
Intrinsic motivation decreases
Classic Research: Deci (1971)
Participants solved puzzles (intrinsically interesting task)
Experimental group: Paid for each puzzle solved
Control group: No payment
Result: Paid group showed LESS interest in puzzles during free-choice period
Interpretation: Money shifted perceived cause from enjoyment to reward
When Undermining Is Most Likely
Factor | Greater Undermining |
|---|---|
Expected rewards | Rewards promised in advance |
Tangible rewards | Physical prizes, money (vs. verbal praise) |
Contingent rewards | Rewards tied to task engagement or completion |
Controlling context | Rewards used to control behavior |
When Rewards DON'T Undermine (or Enhance)
Factor | Less/No Undermining |
|---|---|
Unexpected rewards | Surprise rewards after performance |
Verbal praise | Informational, competence-affirming feedback |
Competence feedback | Rewards that convey skill improvement |
Autonomy-supportive context | Choice maintained, not controlling |
Low initial intrinsic motivation | Rewards can help initiate engagement |
3.5 Informational vs Controlling Aspects of Rewards
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) proposes rewards have two aspects:
Aspect | Effect on Intrinsic Motivation |
|---|---|
Informational | Provides competence feedback → ENHANCES intrinsic motivation |
Controlling | Pressures behavior, reduces autonomy → UNDERMINES intrinsic motivation |
The dominant aspect determines the effect:
If informational aspect is salient → Intrinsic motivation maintained/enhanced
If controlling aspect is salient → Intrinsic motivation undermined
4. SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT) — Deci & Ryan (1985, 2000)
4.1 Overview
Self-Determination Theory is a comprehensive framework for understanding human motivation. It proposes that:
Motivation exists on a continuum from amotivation to intrinsic motivation
Three basic psychological needs drive motivation
Social contexts that support these needs enhance motivation
Different types of extrinsic motivation vary in their quality
4.2 The Three Basic Psychological Needs
SDT identifies three innate, universal psychological needs that, when satisfied, promote optimal motivation, wellbeing, and performance:
NEED 1: AUTONOMY
Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
Definition | The need to feel that one's actions are self-chosen and volitional |
In sport | Having input into training, choosing events, making decisions |
Satisfied when | Athlete feels they have choice, control, and ownership |
Thwarted when | Athlete feels controlled, pressured, coerced |
Example | Athlete chooses their own goal events rather than being told what to compete in |
NEED 2: COMPETENCE
Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
Definition | The need to feel effective and capable in one's interactions with the environment |
In sport | Feeling skilled, improving, mastering challenges |
Satisfied when | Athlete experiences success, receives positive feedback, sees improvement |
Thwarted when | Athlete feels inadequate, receives constant criticism, experiences repeated failure |
Example | Athlete receives specific feedback on technique improvement |
NEED 3: RELATEDNESS
Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
Definition | The need to feel connected to others, to belong, to care and be cared for |
In sport | Feeling part of a team, valued by coach and teammates, socially connected |
Satisfied when | Athlete feels accepted, supported, has meaningful relationships |
Thwarted when | Athlete feels isolated, rejected, disconnected from others |
Example | Athlete feels genuinely valued by teammates and included in team activities |
4.3 The Self-Determination Continuum
SDT proposes that motivation exists on a continuum from least to most self-determined:
LEAST SELF-DETERMINED ←――――――――――――――――――――――――――→ MOST SELF-DETERMINED
Amotivation → External → Introjected → Identified → Integrated → Intrinsic
Regulation Regulation Regulation Regulation Motivation
|______________|_______________|_______________|_______________|______________|
Non- External Somewhat Somewhat Internal
Regulation Regulation External Internal Regulation
Regulation Regulation
4.4 Types of Motivation on the Continuum
AMOTIVATION
Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
Definition | Absence of motivation; no intention to act |
Characteristics | Going through the motions, no purpose, feeling helpless |
Athlete example | "I don't know why I'm here. There's no point to any of this." |
Regulatory style | Non-regulation |
Perceived locus of causality | Impersonal |
Outcomes | Dropout, poor engagement, learned helplessness |
EXTERNAL REGULATION
Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
Definition | Behavior controlled by external rewards or punishments |
Characteristics | Compliance, doing it for tangible rewards or to avoid punishment |
Athlete example | "I train because my parents will punish me if I don't." |
Regulatory style | External regulation |
Perceived locus of causality | External |
Outcomes | Minimal engagement, dependent on external contingencies |
INTROJECTED REGULATION
Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
Definition | Behavior driven by internal pressures like guilt, shame, or ego |
Characteristics | Partially internalized; "should" and "ought" language; avoiding guilt |
Athlete example | "I'd feel guilty if I skipped training. I have to prove I'm good enough." |
Regulatory style | Somewhat external |
Perceived locus of causality | Somewhat external |
Outcomes | Unstable motivation, contingent self-worth, anxiety |
IDENTIFIED REGULATION
Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
Definition | Behavior is consciously valued and personally important |
Characteristics | Personal endorsement of activity's value; chosen for meaningful goals |
Athlete example | "Training is important because being fit matters to me for my health and goals." |
Regulatory style | Somewhat internal |
Perceived locus of causality | Somewhat internal |
Outcomes | More stable engagement, persistence, willing effort |
INTEGRATED REGULATION
Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
Definition | Behavior fully assimilated into one's identity and values |
Characteristics | Activity is part of who you are; congruent with other values |
Athlete example | "Being an athlete is who I am. Training is part of my lifestyle and identity." |
Regulatory style | Internal |
Perceived locus of causality | Internal |
Outcomes | Very stable, self-congruent, high quality engagement |
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
Definition | Behavior done for inherent enjoyment and satisfaction |
Characteristics | Activity is fun, interesting, challenging in positive way |
Athlete example | "I love training. The feeling of improvement is so satisfying." |
Regulatory style | Internal |
Perceived locus of causality | Internal |
Outcomes | Highest quality engagement, creativity, persistence, wellbeing |
4.5 Comparison Table: Motivation Types
Type | Regulation | Example Statement | Quality |
|---|---|---|---|
Amotivation | None | "I don't see the point" | Lowest |
External | External | "For the money/trophy" | Low |
Introjected | Somewhat external | "I'd feel guilty if I didn't" | Moderate-Low |
Identified | Somewhat internal | "It's important for my goals" | Moderate-High |
Integrated | Internal | "It's part of who I am" | High |
Intrinsic | Internal | "I love it, it's fun" | Highest |
4.6 Autonomous vs Controlled Motivation
SDT distinguishes between two overarching categories:
Category | Includes | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
Autonomous motivation | Intrinsic, integrated, identified | Self-endorsed, volitional, willingly engaged |
Controlled motivation | External, introjected | Pressured, coerced, compliance-based |
Key insight: The MORE autonomous the motivation, the BETTER the outcomes (persistence, effort, wellbeing, performance).
5. APPLYING SDT: CREATING NEED-SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
5.1 Supporting AUTONOMY
Strategy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
Provide choice | Offer options within structure | Let athletes choose between training activities |
Explain rationale | Give reasons for requests | Explain WHY a drill is important |
Acknowledge feelings | Validate athlete's perspective | "I understand this is frustrating" |
Minimize control | Avoid controlling language and pressure | Avoid "you must" and "you should" |
Encourage initiative | Support athlete-generated ideas | "What do YOU think would help?" |
Use informational feedback | Focus on improvement, not control | "Your footwork improved" vs "Do it my way" |
5.2 Supporting COMPETENCE
Strategy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
Optimal challenge | Match task difficulty to skill level | Progressive skill development |
Clear expectations | Define what success looks like | Clear performance criteria |
Positive feedback | Provide specific, informational praise | "Your reaction time has improved significantly" |
Structure | Organize environment for success | Well-planned, progressive training |
Skill-building focus | Emphasize learning and improvement | Focus on process over outcome |
Mastery experiences | Create opportunities for success | Design drills where athletes can succeed |
5.3 Supporting RELATEDNESS
Strategy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
Show genuine interest | Care about athlete as a person | Ask about life outside sport |
Team-building | Create opportunities for connection | Team activities, shared experiences |
Inclusive environment | Ensure everyone feels valued | Involve all athletes, not just stars |
Empathy | Understand athlete's perspective | Listen actively, show understanding |
Supportive climate | Foster cooperation over competition | Emphasize team support |
Positive relationships | Build trust and rapport | Consistent, caring interactions |
6. MOTIVATIONAL CLIMATE
6.1 Definition
Motivational climate refers to the psychological environment created by significant others (coaches, parents, peers) that influences motivation and achievement behavior.
6.2 Two Types of Motivational Climate (Ames, 1992)
Dimension | Mastery/Task Climate | Performance/Ego Climate |
|---|---|---|
Focus | Learning, improvement, effort | Winning, outperforming others |
Success defined by | Personal improvement, mastery | Being better than others |
Effort valued | High — effort leads to success | Low — ability matters more |
Mistakes viewed as | Learning opportunities | Failures to be avoided |
Competition | Against self, personal standards | Against others |
Recognition | For improvement and effort | For winning and talent |
Autonomy | Choice encouraged | Coach-controlled |
6.3 TARGET Framework (Epstein, 1989; Ames, 1992)
Coaches can shape motivational climate through six dimensions:
Dimension | Mastery-Oriented | Performance-Oriented |
|---|---|---|
T - Task | Varied, challenging, individually meaningful | Same for all, competitive comparison |
A - Authority | Athlete input, shared decision-making | Coach controls all decisions |
R - Recognition | Private, for effort and improvement | Public, for performance relative to others |
G - Grouping | Mixed ability, cooperative | Ability-grouped, competitive |
E - Evaluation | Self-referenced, improvement-focused | Norm-referenced, comparison-focused |
T - Time | Flexible, allows for individual progress | Rigid, same timeline for all |
6.4 Effects of Motivational Climate
Outcome | Mastery Climate | Performance Climate |
|---|---|---|
Intrinsic motivation | Higher | Lower |
Effort | Greater | Variable |
Persistence | Higher | Lower (especially after failure) |
Anxiety | Lower | Higher |
Enjoyment | Higher | Lower |
Dropout | Lower | Higher |
Skill development | Better long-term | May be compromised |
Moral behavior | More sportspersonship | More aggression/cheating |
7. ACHIEVEMENT GOAL THEORY
7.1 Overview
Achievement Goal Theory (Nicholls, 1984, 1989) proposes that individuals can define success and competence in different ways, leading to different motivational patterns.
7.2 Two Goal Orientations
Orientation | Definition | Success Defined By |
|---|---|---|
Task/Mastery orientation | Focus on learning, improvement, task mastery | Personal improvement, effort, learning |
Ego/Performance orientation | Focus on demonstrating ability relative to others | Outperforming others, winning, looking competent |
7.3 Characteristics of Each Orientation
Aspect | Task-Oriented | Ego-Oriented |
|---|---|---|
Ability belief | Ability is incremental (can be developed) | Ability is fixed (entity view) |
Effort belief | Effort leads to improvement | High effort suggests low ability |
Challenge preference | Seek optimal challenges | Avoid challenges that might reveal low ability |
Response to failure | Persist, view as learning opportunity | Withdraw, make excuses, reduce effort |
Intrinsic motivation | Higher | Lower (especially with low perceived ability) |
Enjoyment | Higher | Lower (contingent on winning) |
7.4 2×2 Achievement Goal Framework (Elliot & McGregor, 2001)
Later research expanded to include approach vs avoidance dimension:
Approach | Avoidance | |
|---|---|---|
Mastery | Mastery-Approach: "I want to learn and improve" | Mastery-Avoidance: "I don't want to perform worse than before" |
Performance | Performance-Approach: "I want to outperform others" | Performance-Avoidance: "I don't want to look incompetent" |
7.5 Optimal Goal Profile
Research suggests the most adaptive pattern is:
HIGH task orientation (always beneficial)
Low to moderate ego orientation (not necessarily harmful if combined with high task)
Approach goals (better than avoidance goals)
8. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
8.1 Strategies to Enhance Intrinsic Motivation
Strategy | Description |
|---|---|
Provide choice | Allow athletes input into training and decisions |
Optimal challenge | Match difficulty to skill level |
Positive feedback | Focus on improvement and effort |
Foster autonomy | Avoid controlling behavior |
Emphasize enjoyment | Make training fun and varied |
Focus on mastery | Emphasize learning over winning |
Build competence | Design for success experiences |
Support relatedness | Foster team connection and belonging |
8.2 Using Extrinsic Rewards Effectively
Guideline | Rationale |
|---|---|
Unexpected rewards | Less likely to undermine intrinsic motivation |
Competence-informing | Emphasize what reward says about ability |
Non-controlling | Don't use rewards to manipulate behavior |
Verbal praise | Less undermining than tangible rewards |
Performance-contingent | Tied to quality, not just participation |
Avoid for already enjoyed tasks | Don't add rewards to intrinsically motivating activities |
8.3 Creating Mastery Climate
Action | Application |
|---|---|
Define success as improvement | Emphasize personal bests, skill development |
Recognize effort | Praise hard work, not just outcomes |
Treat mistakes as learning | Normalize errors as part of development |
Provide individual challenges | Differentiate based on skill level |
Encourage cooperation | Foster teamwork over internal competition |
Use self-referenced evaluation | Compare athletes to their own past performance |
8.4 Motivational Interviewing Techniques
Technique | Description |
|---|---|
Open-ended questions | "What do you enjoy about training?" |
Reflective listening | Mirror athlete's feelings and concerns |
Affirming strengths | Recognize capabilities and efforts |
Exploring values | Connect sport to what matters to them |
Eliciting change talk | Help athlete articulate their own reasons |
9. MOTIVATIONAL PROFILES IN SPORT
9.1 Common Athlete Profiles
Profile | Characteristics | Intervention |
|---|---|---|
Self-determined | High intrinsic + identified; low external | Maintain autonomy support |
Externally motivated | High external; low intrinsic | Build enjoyment, competence, autonomy |
Introjected | High introjected; guilt-driven | Reduce pressure, build identified reasons |
Amotivated | Low on all types | Explore reasons, rebuild purpose, consider fit |
9.2 Developmental Considerations
Age Group | Motivational Considerations |
|---|---|
Children | Intrinsic motivation dominant; fun and mastery key; avoid heavy extrinsic rewards |
Adolescents | Social motives increase; peer relationships important; identity formation |
Adults | More varied motives; health, social, achievement all relevant |
Elite athletes | Complex mix; maintaining intrinsic while managing professional pressures |
10. MEASUREMENT OF MOTIVATION
10.1 Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) — Pelletier et al. (1995)
Measures motivation on the self-determination continuum
28 items across 7 subscales:
Intrinsic motivation (3 types)
Extrinsic motivation (3 types)
Amotivation
Revised version: SMS-II (Pelletier et al., 2013)
10.2 Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ) — Lonsdale et al. (2008)
24 items measuring:
Amotivation
External regulation
Introjected regulation
Identified regulation
Integrated regulation
Intrinsic motivation
10.3 Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) — Duda & Nicholls (1992)
Measures goal orientations
13 items
Two subscales: Task orientation, Ego orientation
10.4 Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ) — Seifriz et al. (1992)
Measures athlete perceptions of motivational climate
Two dimensions: Mastery climate, Performance climate
11. RESEARCH EVIDENCE AND KEY STUDIES
Study | Finding |
|---|---|
Deci (1971) | External rewards undermined intrinsic motivation for interesting tasks |
Deci & Ryan (1985, 2000) | Established Self-Determination Theory and basic needs |
Vallerand et al. (1987) | Developed hierarchical model of motivation |
Ntoumanis (2001) | SDT applied to physical education; need satisfaction predicted motivation |
Amorose & Horn (2000) | Coach autonomy support related to athlete intrinsic motivation |
Sarrazin et al. (2002) | Self-determined motivation predicted persistence in sport |
Duda (2001) | Goal orientation affects achievement patterns in sport |
Mageau & Vallerand (2003) | Coach behaviors that support/undermine athlete motivation |
12. MOTIVATION AND BURNOUT
12.1 The Motivation-Burnout Connection
Motivation Type | Burnout Risk |
|---|---|
Intrinsic | Lower risk — enjoyment protects against burnout |
Identified | Lower risk — personal value sustains engagement |
Introjected | Higher risk — guilt and pressure contribute to exhaustion |
External | Higher risk — external contingencies create pressure |
Amotivation | Highest risk — lack of purpose, disengagement |
12.2 Preventing Motivational Burnout
Strategy | Description |
|---|---|
Support autonomy | Reduce controlling behaviors |
Build competence | Ensure athletes experience improvement |
Foster relatedness | Create supportive team environment |
Allow recovery | Physical and psychological rest |
Reconnect with enjoyment | Rediscover what they love about sport |
Reframe goals | Shift from pressure to purpose |
13. EXAM APPLICATION TIPS
13.1 Common Essay Questions
"Compare intrinsic and extrinsic motivation using sporting examples" (8 marks)
"Explain Self-Determination Theory and its three basic psychological needs" (10 marks)
"Discuss how a coach can create a motivational climate that enhances intrinsic motivation" (10 marks)
"Explain the undermining effect and how coaches can avoid it" (8 marks)
"Compare mastery and performance motivational climates" (6-8 marks)
13.2 Key Definitions to Know
Motivation (direction and intensity)
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Amotivation
Self-determination
Autonomy, competence, relatedness
External, introjected, identified, integrated regulation
Motivational climate
Task/mastery orientation
Ego/performance orientation
Undermining effect
13.3 Application Examples
Intrinsic motivation: "A young footballer trains extra hours after practice because they genuinely love working on their skills and find satisfaction in mastering new techniques — not for any external reward."
Extrinsic motivation: "A swimmer competes primarily to win prize money and secure sponsorship deals. They train hard but mainly because of the financial rewards, not inherent enjoyment."
Autonomy support: "A coach allows gymnasts to choose which apparatus they want to focus on during a training session, and explains the rationale behind conditioning exercises, fostering autonomy."
Competence support: "A tennis coach provides specific, positive feedback on a player's improved backhand technique and designs drills that allow the player to experience success while being challenged."
Relatedness support: "A rugby coach organizes team dinners and ensures all players, regardless of starting status, feel valued and included in team activities."
14. KEY RESEARCHERS TO REFERENCE
Researcher | Contribution |
|---|---|
Deci & Ryan (1985, 2000) | Self-Determination Theory, basic needs, intrinsic/extrinsic distinction |
Vallerand (1997, 2007) | Hierarchical model of motivation, Sport Motivation Scale |
Nicholls (1984, 1989) | Achievement Goal Theory, task/ego orientations |
Ames (1992) | Motivational climate, TARGET framework |
Duda (1992, 2001) | Achievement goals in sport, TEOSQ |
Pelletier et al. (1995) | Sport Motivation Scale |
Mageau & Vallerand (2003) | Coach-athlete relationship and motivation |
15. SUMMARY: OPTIMAL MOTIVATION IN SPORT
Component | Optimal State |
|---|---|
Type of motivation | Autonomous (intrinsic, integrated, identified) |
Basic needs | Autonomy, competence, relatedness all satisfied |
Goal orientation | High task/mastery; approach-focused |
Motivational climate | Mastery-oriented |
Reward use | Minimal, informational, non-controlling |
Coach behavior | Autonomy-supportive, competence-building, relatedness-fostering |