U.S. Imperialism and Foreign Policy

The United States gained control of Puerto Rico as a result of the Spanish-American War in 1898.
Prior to the war, many Puerto Ricans sought independence from Spanish colonial rule;
- Luis Muñoz Rivera was a prominent leader in this independence movement.
- He engaged with the Spanish government to negotiate for Puerto Rico's independence.
- By 1897, Puerto Rico had secured the right to self-governance, but it remained a Spanish colony.
Upon U.S. acquisition of Puerto Rico,
- Rivera continued to advocate for independence.
- The U.S. government had different intentions towards the island.
Initially, the U.S. appointed military officers to govern Puerto Rico.
On April 12, 1900, Congress passed the Foraker Act,
- This act established Puerto Rico’s first House of Representatives and Supreme Court.
- Key points from the Foraker Act:
- The U.S. president was given the authority to appoint a governor and an executive council.
- Limited political power was granted to Puerto Ricans.
U.S. interests in controlling Puerto Rico's government included:
- Economic opportunities: Puerto Rico could supply goods like sugar to the U.S.
- It served as a new market for American products, notably coal, which Puerto Rico lacked.
- The U.S. sought to establish exclusive trading rights.
- Strategic military importance as a potential site for a U.S. naval base.

In 1901, Theodore Roosevelt assumed the presidency.
By this time, the U.S. had acquired various territories, including:
- The previously uninhabited Wake Island.
- Portions of the island chain of Samoa, recognized as American Samoa.
- Earlier annexation included the Midway Islands in 1867.
Roosevelt aimed to extend American influence globally, particularly in Latin America.
His strategies were influenced by Alfred T. Mahan’s recommendations:
- Build a robust navy.
- Adopt an aggressive foreign policy.
- Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans via a canal through Central America.

Roosevelt articulated a foreign policy principle: "speak softly and carry a big stick."
- This suggested that the U.S. should negotiate peacefully while demonstrating military strength.
Instances of Big Stick Diplomacy:
- Early in his presidency, Roosevelt intervened during a crisis involving Venezuela in 1902,
- German and British ships blockaded Venezuelan ports to collect debts, damaging the economy.
- Roosevelt responded by negotiating a deal to resolve the tension, demonstrating a peaceful approach.
- However, he also issued the Roosevelt Corollary,
- The Corollary amended the Monroe Doctrine, which originally rejected European invasion of the Americas.
- It expanded U.S. authority by stating that the U.S. would intervene in Latin American affairs to ensure economic and political stability.

The Roosevelt Corollary was significant in the context of constructing a canal in Central America.
The canal would greatly reduce shipping times between the U.S. East and West coasts,
- Prior routes required ships to navigate around South America.
In 1902, Congress attempted to negotiate a treaty to lease land in Colombia for the canal.
- The Colombian government rejected these attempts.
- Roosevelt encouraged insurrection among the locals in the isthmus, facilitating a rebellion against Colombia.
- American naval presence discouraged Colombian forces from suppressing the revolt, allowing Panama to declare independence.

After Panama's independence, the new government agreed to lease a 10-mile strip to the United States.
Construction of the Panama Canal commenced on March 3, 1904 and continued beyond Roosevelt’s presidency.
The canal officially opened in 1914.
The Panama Canal Zone represented another territory acquired by the U.S.,
- Though these acquisitions occurred through treaties rather than force, critics still referred to the U.S. as an empire.
Benefits of the canal included:
- A reduction of shipping distance by 12,000 miles.
- Lower prices for goods transported via the canal.
- Enhanced military response times globally.

By 1909, Roosevelt passed on his administrative responsibilities to President Taft.
Taft generally continued Roosevelt’s diplomatic strategies but shifted approach when it came to investments, particularly in China.
Examples of Dollar Diplomacy:
- In 1909, when China sought assistance to purchase Japanese-owned railroads,
- Taft and other global leaders provided loans to the Chinese government.
- In return, Taft requested more favorable conditions for American trade in China.
The approach was termed "Dollar Diplomacy,"
- Indicating that influence over countries could be achieved through financial means instead of military force, shifting from Roosevelt’s strategy of imposing power through military might.