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Lecture 1: Types of Municipalities

  • Single-Tier Municipality

    • Definition: Responsible for providing all services within their municipality.

    • Governance: Governed by one council.

  • Lower-Tier Municipality

    • Definition: Responsible for providing "localized" services within their municipality.

    • Governance: Governed by a local council.

  • Upper-Tier Municipality

    • Definition: Responsible for providing region-wide services in their municipality.

    • Governance: Governed by a council composed of directly-elected regional councillors, appointed local councillors, or a combination of both.

  • Agencies, Boards, and Commissions (ABCs)

    • Definition: Arms-length bodies composed of local representatives (appointed, elected, or both) tasked with managing specialized aspects of local service delivery.

  • Legitimacy

    • Input Legitimacy: Also known as "procedural legitimacy", refers to the belief by the governed that those making legally enforceable decisions have the right to do so.

    • Output Legitimacy: Also known as "substantive legitimacy", refers to the belief that the outputs of governance are acceptable and appropriate.

Types of Authority

  • State Authority

    • Definition: The state is the form of human community that claims the monopoly of legitimate physical violence within a particular territory.

  • Expert Authority

    • Definition: Individuals with skills and knowledge about specific topics expected to deliver strong, effective results.

  • Private Authority

    • Examples: Families, private charities, professional bodies, or private economic actors.

  • Popular Authority

    • Definition: The concept that ultimate legitimacy rests with "the people" as an institution.

Constitutional Sections Governing Municipalities

  • Section 91: Outlines federal responsibilities including trade, postal service, military, weights and measures, currency, immigration, etc.

  • Section 92: Outlines provincial responsibilities such as hospitals, prisons, incorporating companies, licensing, drinking establishments, natural resources, and education (with specific focus on Section 93).

    • Paragraph 8 of Section 92: Grants provinces authority over "municipal institutions in the province".

Lecture 2: The Eras of Municipal Government in Canada

  • Early Colonial (Pre-1837)

  • Victorian (1837 - 1901)

  • Reform (1902 - 1915)

  • Battleground (1916 - 1958)

  • Renewal (1959 - 1990)

  • Reorganization and Redefinition (1991 - Present)

Historical Influences on Municipal Government

  • United Empire Loyalists (UEL): Emigrated from the U.S. due to loyalty to the crown, introducing ideas of home rule and municipal incorporation.

  • Colonial Institutions:

    • Courts of Quarter Session served as municipal governments and were appointed, not elected.

    • Elites (Family Compact, Château Clique) opposed reforms.

    • Reformers advocated for change, leading to the Rebellions of 1837/1838 which prompted significant shifts in municipal governance.

    • Robert Baldwin: A Reform leader post-Rebellions, responsible for the Municipal Corporations Act of 1849 (the "Baldwin Act"), creating the modern municipal government structure and tier system.

  • Urban Reformers:

    • Distinct from the colonial Reform Movement; aimed for non-partisan municipal governance, establishing council/manager system, and powerful Boards of Control.

  • Labours vs. Boosters:

    • Early 20th Century organized labour began municipal candidacy to improve urban life, opposed by pro-business "civic boosters".

Urban Renewal and Opposition

  • Urban Renewal: State-supported clearance of blighted areas for new developments, involving initiatives like the Regent Park and Spadina Expressway projects.

    • Opposition: Emergence of community groups (Neighborhood Associations) and NIMBY movements, articulating local concerns about property values and community impacts.

Lecture 3: Municipal/Federal Relations

  • Municipalities collaborate with the federal government on housing and infrastructure.

    • Federal government maintains quasi-municipal powers in Ottawa/Gatineau (National Capital Commission).

Municipal/Provincial Relations

  • Provinces and Municipal Control: Defined by Section 92 of the Constitution and the Ontario Municipal Act of 2001; control often exercised by the Minister of Municipal Affairs and Housing overseeing municipal codes and acts.

  • Lobbying Efforts:

    • Municipalities represented by the Federation of Canadian Municipalities and provincial groups like the Association of Municipalities of Ontario (AMO), which collaborates with the province through a Memorandum of Understanding.

Municipal/Indigenous Relations

  • Relationships fostered through constitutional agreements with Indigenous communities (band councils and chiefs) to ensure service delivery cooperation.

Municipal/International Relations

  • Global cooperation via initiatives like the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Cities Initiative.

Lecture 4: Municipal Revenue Generation

  • Municipal revenue generation limited under constitutional constraints.

  • Revenue Sources:

    • Property taxes, development charges, user fees, other taxes/fees/fines, and transfer payments.

Property Assessment and Taxation

  • Property Assessment: Process to determine property value for a fair tax rate handled by the Municipal Property Assessment Corporation (MPAC).

    • Tax Rate: extTotalassessedvalue/extCostofprovidingservicesimes100ext{Total assessed value} / ext{Cost of providing services} imes 100 %.

  • Rate-Supported Budget: Funded primarily through user fees covering services like water and waste management.

  • Tax-Supported Budget:

    • Operating Budget: Funds regular municipal operations, planned yearly based on council priorities.

    • Capital Budget: Funds long-term projects and investments, planned over extended periods using reserves and transfers.

Alternative Revenue Methods

  • Proposed methods include income taxes, sales taxes, and fuel taxes.

  • Development Charges: One-time fees on developers during permit issuance to aid infrastructure funding.

User Fees and Other Charges

  • User fees for specific services and licenses for validations; other fees can include payments in lieu, vacant unit taxes, and accommodation taxes.

Transfer Payments

  • Different forms include

    • Conditional Grants: Funds allocated for specific projects.

    • Unconditional Grants: Flexible funds for municipal needs.

    • Revenue/Tax-Sharing Agreements: Ensures municipalities financial stability by distributing revenues and responsibilities.

Lecture 5: Planning and Jurisdiction

  • The Planning Act, 1990 sets municipal responsibilities and outlines provincial authority.

    • Provincial Policy Statements: Broad guidelines municipalities must align with.

    • Minister's Zoning Orders (MZOs): Allow province-wide regulations to override local municipal decisions.

  • Official Plans: Comprehensive documents for municipality policies on land use guiding future development; Secondary Plans: More detailed land use strategies for specific areas.

Zoning By-laws and Committees of Adjustment

  • Zoning By-laws: Control land use within municipalities, modified by adjustments made through special ABCs such as Committees of Adjustment, who hear petitions for minor deviations.

Lecture 6: Municipal Councils

  • Minimum five member municipal council elected by residents.

    • Lower-Tier Councils:

    • Double-Direct Election: Members serve both local and upper-tier councils (elected directly).

    • Appointment by Local Councils: Elected members nominate representatives to upper-tier councils.

    • Direct Election: Members elected specifically for upper-tier councils.

Heads of Council and Powers

  • Head of Council: The primary representative presiding over meetings, can have increased powers under strong mayor provisions (e.g., budget discussions, department restructuring).

  • Deputy Mayors and Councillors:

    • Deputy mayors assist the council and can vary in appointment, election, or designation.

    • Councillors serve local councils and ABCs for four-year terms, typically part-time with limited pay.

Electoral Organization

  • Varieties include ward systems, at-large systems, or hybrids.

    • Ward Systems:

    • Single-member vs. multi-member elections based on ward size.

  • At-Large Systems: All council members elected to represent entire municipality with a block voting system.

Ontario Municipal Elections Act, 1996

  • Rules governing candidates, voters, and municipalities during elections, detailing residency requirements, election day (fourth Monday in October), terms of office (four years from November 15).

  • Election Administration: Local clerks manage elections, including polling hours (10 AM-8 PM).

Voting Methods

  • Formats include traditional paper ballots, mail-in voting, or internet voting through a secure portal.

Candidacy and Campaigning

  • Individuals must meet qualifications defined in the Act, including residency as an elector and prohibition on specific roles like judges or municipal employees. Campaign finance rules apply.

Political Parties in Municipal Affairs

  • Political parties were historically influential but are now primarily active in British Columbia, Quebec, and select Alberta municipalities.

    • In Ontario, municipal political parties are formally prohibited.

Lecture 8: Treaties and Indigenous Rights

  • Treaties: Formal agreements between the Crown and Indigenous communities establishing land ownership, rights, and obligations.

    • Toronto Purchase of 1805: Resulted in a land claims settlement with the Mississaugas in 2010 for $145 million.

    • Guided by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 for protocols on Indigenous land purchasing.

Land Registry and Subdivision

  • Land Registry: Official record of land ownership, including title, deed, and transfer documents.

  • Subdivision: Process for splitting land parcels, governed by the Planning Act with municipal approval.

Right to Housing

  • Defined by the National Housing Strategy Act, 2019, establishing the Federal Housing Advocate office aimed at promoting housing rights and addressing systemic issues.

Adequate Housing Criteria

  • Seven criteria for adequate housing:

    • Secure, affordable, habitable, basic services provided, good location, accessible, culturally appropriate.

The Housing Crisis

  • Causes of the housing crisis linked to:

    • Over-reliance on the private market and federal/provincial funding retreats.

    • Emphasis on homeownership leading to lower rental construction and market monopolies.

    • Increases in financial incentives for ownership, financialization of housing, and international influences hurting supply.

Lecture 9: Models of Urban Form

  • Concentric Zone Model: Identifiable rings surrounding a Central Business District (CBD).

  • Sectoral Model: Growth in sectors around a CBD.

  • Multiple Nuclei Model: Development occurs around multiple important nodes/channels in urban areas.

Managing Population Decline

  • Population decline impacts service delivery; municipalities may lose status or may be unincorporated.

  • Tiers of Municipal Government: Defined through the Baldwin Act and various municipality types (counties, townships, cities, regional municipalities).

Annexation and Amalgamation

  • Annexation: Process where one municipality legally acquires land from another (defined in Section 181 of the Municipal Act, 2001).

  • Amalgamation: Combining nearby municipalities; significant events and public backlash highlighted important changes in municipal landscapes.

Lecture 10: Livability and Quality of Life

  • Livability: Describes positive indicators for urban experiences across populations.

  • Quality of Life: Individual perception tied to personal health, relationships, and surroundings.

Municipal Impacts

  • Affect livability through transportation networks, recreational offerings, and sustainable practices under constitutional powers (Sections 92(10), 92(16)).

Transportation and Urban Planning

  • Current systems prioritize car use, with critiques against how transportation modeling simplifies complexities.

Induced Demand

  • Increased roadway capacity temporarily alleviates congestion but ultimately may induce more vehicle usage.

Walkability and Urban Design

  • Emphasis on 15 Minute Cities – all necessities within a 15-minute reach, popularized in Paris.

  • NIMBYism: Resident opposition can stall new developments, impacting communal interests.

Automated Speed Enforcement and Parks

  • Enforcement cameras reduce road fatalities significantly.

  • Municipal parks shifting towards organic, community-driven development.

Lecture 11: Policing

  • Modern Policing: Foundations by Sir Robert Peel influence policing practices today.

  • Police Services Boards provide oversight and governance of local forces, maintaining civilian interventions without operational directives.

Crime Management Theories

  • Broken Windows Policing: Visible disorder increases crime.

  • Community-Oriented Policing: Collaboration between police and residents for enhanced community security.

  • Defensible Space Theory: Advocates for designs that enhance safety and community control.

Homelessness in Ontario

  • Various forms of homelessness with underlying causes such as addiction.

  • The province shifted policies around treatment centers, creating controversy regarding new approaches.

Lecture 12: Indigenous Peoples and Urban Spaces

  • Government policies historically aimed at assimilating Indigenous communities through urbanization.

  • Urban Reserves: Lands within or adjacent to cities, designated for economic engagement and service agreements.

  • Indigenous Placemaking: Reintegrating Indigenous culture in urban design as part of reconciliation efforts.

  • Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Identifies calls for municipal action in bridging gaps between Indigenous peoples and Canadian society.

  • Representation: Advocacy for increased Indigenous input in local governance and reconstruction of queer spaces within urban areas.