Notes on the Empire and Expansion, 1890-1909

Empire and Expansion, 1890-1909

Introduction

The period from 1890 to 1909 in U.S. history marked a significant transition from a largely isolationist stance to an assertive imperial policy. This transformation was fueled by various socio-economic factors, international dynamics, and a growing belief in American exceptionalism and manifest destiny.

Key Quote

A Democratic National Platform statement from 1900 indicated the intertwining of imperialism and domestic politics:
"We assert that no nation can long endure half republic and half empire, and we warn the American people that imperialism abroad will lead quickly and inevitably to despotism at home."

27-1 America Turns Outward

Factors Driving Expansion

Several developments propelled the desire for overseas expansion:

  • Economic Growth: Farmers and industrialists sought new markets for surplus production due to economic booms in agriculture and manufacturing.

  • Population Pressures: A rapidly increasing population created pressure for expansion as many believed America had to "expand or explode."

  • Cultural Influences: Vigilant advocates, including yellow journalists and missionaries, pushed for intervention abroad, portraying it as a noble cause. Reverend Josiah Strong championed the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization, urging Americans to bring their values to "backward" nations.

  • Military Advancements: Alfred Thayer Mahan's work emphasized the importance of sea power, driving investments in a modern navy, seen as crucial for national influence.

Examples of Early Expansionist Activity

  • Joseph Pullitzer and William Randolph Hearst's Yellow Press: They romanticized foreign conquests, suggesting they were adventurous exploits.

  • James G. Blaine's Big Sister Policy: Aimed to expand American influence in Latin America, lead to the 1889 Pan-American Conference to promote trade.

27-2 The Imperial Menu

Expanding American Power

  • The U.S. faced competition from nations like Japan, Germany, and Russia for colonies, particularly as a scramble for Africa intensified.

  • This competition made some Americans feel it essential to assert dominance abroad, and a steel navy was seen as necessary to achieve this.

Example of a Diplomatic Tension

  • The Venezuela crisis demonstrated new American assertiveness, with Secretary of State Richard Olney invoking the Monroe Doctrine to assert U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere, leading to a peaceful resolution but showcasing growing nationalistic sentiment.

27-3 Spurning the Hawaiian Pear

American Interests in Hawaii

  • Hawaii was valuable to Americans as a base for operations in the Pacific and for sugar production. The U.S. signed a treaty guaranteeing naval rights at Pearl Harbor.

  • Queen Liliuokalani opposed the annexation by American planters, which led to her overthrow in 1893, a clear indicator of U.S. imperial ambitions.

Annexation of Hawaii

  • In 1898, Hawaii was annexed amid its economic crisis and American interests conflicting with the Queen's wishes.

27-4 Cubans Rise in Revolt

Causes for Cuban Uprisings

  • Economic turmoil, exacerbated by American tariffs and Spanish misrule, led to Cuban revolts against Spanish authority.

  • The U.S. had significant business interests in Cuba (around $50 million), which fueled American sympathy for the Cuban cause of independence.

U.S. Role and the Spanish-American War

  • The sensationalist yellow journalism intensified public interest in the conflict, particularly surrounding General "Butcher" Weyler's brutal tactics.

  • The sinking of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor in 1898 (causing the death of 260 sailors) pushed the U.S. solidly toward war against Spain on the rallying cry of "Remember the Maine!".

27-5 War with Spain

Initial Military Actions

  • Admiral Dewey achieved a decisive victory in Manila Bay by destroying the Spanish fleet without any American casualties, paving the way for the U.S. presence in the Philippines.

Cuba and Puerto Rico

  • In Cuba, under General Shafter, American forces executed a poorly equipped but ultimately successful campaign against Spanish forces, culminating in Santiago.

  • The quick victories Enhanced the reputation of the U.S. military and filled the public with national pride.

27-6 America's Course (Curse?) of Empire

Aftermath of the War

  • The Treaty of Paris (1898) ceded Cuba and the Philippines, leading to contentious debates over imperialism vs. American ideals of freedom and self-governance.

  • McKinley's decision for outright annexation of the Philippines, despite opposition, was fueled by fears of anarchy and the opportunity to civilize.

Opposition and Debate

  • Anti-imperialists argued that annexation contradicted the principles of democracy and self-determination, while proponents argued it was necessary for American security and economic interests.

Conclusion

This period illustrates the complex motivations behind U.S. foreign policy and the contradictions inherent in expanding an American empire while professing democratic ideals. As tensions regarding the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Cuba surfaced, the national identity faced a profound trial as it negotiated its role on the world stage.