Introduction to Biotechnology Lecture Notes

Introduction to Biotechnology

• Verbatim Definition: Biotechnology is the process of using living organisms, or the products of living organisms, for human benefit to make a product or solve a problem.

• Interdisciplinary Nature: Biotechnology represents a broad field that originates from and relies upon several basic sciences and specialized disciplines:

  • Molecular and Cell Biology

  • Genetics

  • Biochemistry

  • Microbiology

  • Immunology

  • Physiology (Human, Animal, and Plant)

  • Chemical Engineering

  • Physics

  • Mathematics and Statistics

  • Computer Science

Common Real-World Experiences with Biotechnology

• Many individuals interact with biotechnology products daily without realization. Common examples include:

  • Consuming Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) or Genetically Engineered (GE) produce.

  • Undergoing treatment with monoclonal antibodies.

  • Receiving a flu vaccination.

  • Requiring insulin injections (for diabetes management).

  • Utilizing home pregnancy tests.

  • Using antibiotics to treat bacterial infections.

  • Consuming fermented products such as a glass of wine or cheese.

Historical Foundations and Milestones

• Selective Breeding: This involved manipulating the genes of domesticated plants and animals to improve crops and livestock over generations.

• Plant Domestication ($10,500$ BC): Early examples include the domestication of barley and wheat.

  • Evolutionary Example: The transition from Teosinte to Modern Corn.

• Animal Domestication ($9,000$–$7,000$ BC): Early domesticated species included sheep, cows, goats, and pigs.

  • Evolutionary Example: The common ancestor of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) is the Gray wolf (Canis lupus occidentalis), with origins traced across Europe, North America, China, and India.

• Fermentation ($7,000$–$6,600$ BC): Early civilizations utilized fruit, rice, and honey to produce alcoholic beverages.

  • Chemical Reaction for Fermentation: $C_6H_{12}O_6 \rightarrow 2\,C_2H_5OH + 2\,CO_2$

• Early Antibiotics: Alexander Fleming discovered Penicillin in $1928$ from the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum.

Foundations of Modern Biotechnology

• Gene Cloning: The ability to identify, isolate, and copy (clone) a specific gene of interest.

• Recombinant DNA Technology: A technique that enables DNA from different sources to be combined. This technology is credited with starting the modern biotechnology industry.

• Genetic Engineering: The process of altering an organism's DNA. This was pioneered in $1973$ by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer.

• Human Genome Project ($1990$–$2003$): An international research effort to identify all human genes and determine their specific loci (locations) on chromosomes.

Applications of Modern Biotechnology

• Vaccines: Preventative treatments for various diseases.

• Diagnostics: Tools for identifying health conditions.

• Agriculture: Development of disease-resistant plants and food crops providing greater yields.

• Nutrition: "Golden rice" was specifically engineered to possess higher nutritional value.

• Environment: Genetically engineered bacteria designed to degrade environmental pollutants.

• Medicine: Personalized medicine and biotechnology-derived pharmaceutical products.

Protein Products Manufactured from Cloned Genes

• Blood Factor VIII (Clotting Factor): Used to treat hemophilia.

• Epidermal Growth Factor: Used to stimulate antibody production in patients with immune system disorders.

• Growth Hormone: Used to correct pituitary deficiencies and short stature in humans; variants are used in cows to increase milk production.

• Insulin: Used for the treatment of diabetes.

• Interferons: Used in the treatment of cancer and various viral infections.

• Interleukins: Used to treat cancer and stimulate antibody production.

• Monoclonal Antibodies: Used to diagnose and treat various diseases, including arthritis and cancer.

• Tissue Plasminogen Activator: Used in the treatment of heart attacks and strokes.

The Seven Major Branches of Biotechnology

1. Microbial Biotechnology

2. Agricultural Biotechnology

3. Animal Biotechnology

4. Forensic Biotechnology

5. Bioremediation

6. Aquatic Biotechnology

7. Medical Biotechnology

Microbial Biotechnology

• Core Concept: Utilizing microorganisms to create valuable products and applications.

• Applications:

  • Creation of more effective enzymes.

  • Simplification of manufacturing and production processes.

  • Large-scale (batch) production of proteins and vaccines for human medicine.

  • Development of efficient decontamination processes for industrial waste removal.

• Humulin R [insulin (human recombinant)]:

  • Before $1982$, insulin was purified from pigs and cows.

  • In $1982$, Humulin R received FDA approval as the first recombinant human insulin.

  • Production Process: The gene of interest is introduced into bacterial or mammalian cells; cells are grown on culture plates and then transferred to a fermenter; the recombinant protein is isolated using biochemical techniques.

Agricultural Biotechnology

• Core Concept: Genetically engineering plants to produce valuable products and improve efficiency.

• Key Goals:

  • Increasing yield per acre and environmental friendliness.

  • Developing resistance to diseases and insect pests.

  • Enhancing nutritional content (e.g., higher protein or vitamin levels).

  • Using plants as "factories" to grow drugs/pharmaceuticals.

  • Developing drought-resistant and cold-tolerant strains.

• Global Context: The UN Food and Agricultural Organization predicts that by $2050$, the world population will reach $9.1$ billion. To sustain this, food production must increase by approximately $70\%$.

Animal Biotechnology

• Core Concept: Engineering animals for product development and research.

• Applications:

  • Bioreactors: Animals used to produce therapeutic proteins (e.g., antibodies) in large quantities.

  • Transgenic Animals: Female transgenic animals can express therapeutic proteins in their milk. For example, ATryn (Antithrombin) is produced in the milk of goats containing human genes coding for anti-clotting proteins.

  • Model Organisms: Using animals like rats and mice to study gene function.

  • Organismal Cloning: Potential for producing genetically engineered organs that do not cause tissue rejection.

• Gene Knockout Studies:

  • Involves disrupting a specific gene and observing the resulting functional losses.

  • Helps researchers determine the specific role and function of genes.

  • Example: Homozygous "Southbeach" mice develop severe obesity (but not diabetes) due to a mutation knocking out the melanocortin 4 receptor ($MC4R$) gene.

Forensic Biotechnology

• Core Concept: The analysis and application of biological evidence (such as DNA sequence data) to identify unique biological patterns.

• Milestone: Modern DNA profiling was developed in $1988$ by Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester, England.

• Applications:

  • Solving crimes and identifying human remains.

  • Determining paternity.

  • Tracking disease-spreading organisms.

  • Identifying the composition of "mystery meats."

Bioremediation Biotechnology

• Core Concept: Using living organisms to process, degrade, and clean up environmental pollutants.

• Applications:

  • Breaking down oil and degrading human waste (wastewater treatment).

  • Degrading hazardous materials.

  • Bioaccumulating heavy metals.

• Historical Case Studies:

  • Exxon Valdez Oil Spill ($1989$): Alaska. Involved stimulated growth of bacteria to degrade crude oil components.

  • Deep Water Horizon Spill ($2010$): Promoted research into natural oil-degrading organisms and enzymes.

Aquatic Biotechnology

• Core Concept: Using aquatic organisms (finfish, shellfish, marine bacteria, plants) for biotechnological applications.

• Aquaculture: The raising of finfish or shellfish in controlled conditions for food; currently accounts for $50\%$ of all fish consumed globally.

• Bioprospecting: Searching for new genes or molecules in the ocean. For example, marine plankton and snails have been found to contain antitumor and anticancer molecules.

• Genetic Engineering: Development of salmon that overproduce growth hormone throughout the entire year, resulting in significantly larger size compared to normal salmon.

Medical Biotechnology

• Core Concept: Using organisms to improve the spectrum of human health and medicine.

• Primary Areas:

  • Diagnostics of health and illness.

  • Preventative medicine.

  • Treatment of human diseases.

  • Gene therapy.

  • Stem cell technologies.

Global Biotechnology Industry Statistics (2015 Data)

• Total Revenue (Public Companies):

  • Total: $132,700,000,000$

  • US: $107,700,000,000$

  • Europe: $25,000,000,000$

• R&D Expense:

  • Total: $40,100,000,000$

  • US: $33,900,000,000$

  • Europe: $6,200,000,000$

• Number of Employees:

  • Total: $203,850$

  • US: $131,690$

  • Europe: $72,160$

• Number of Public Companies:

  • Total: $670$

  • US: $436$

  • Europe: $234$ (Source: Ernst & Young Beyond borders Biotechnology report 2016)

Questions & Discussion

• Question: How many hours of studying per week should be dedicated to Biotechnology Lecture to be successful in this course?

  • A. $3 \times 1 = 3$ hours per week

  • B. $3 \times 2 = 6$ hours per week

  • C. $3 \times 3 = 9$ hours per week

  • D. $3 \times 0 = 0$ hours per week