Worle

Authors: Monika Wörle, Markus Paulus
Institution: Developmental Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80802 Munich, Germany

Reciprocity represents a critical normative principle for humans.
Aim of Study: To investigate the normative foundations of reciprocity and the development of a reciprocity norm in young children.
Method: 3- to 6-year-olds were presented with three conditions:
1. Protagonist reciprocated sharing a large proportion of resources.
2. Protagonist reciprocated sharing a small proportion of resources.
3. Protagonist did not reciprocate properly, sharing a small proportion in response to receiving a large proportion.
Results: 5- and 6-year-olds recognize a reciprocity norm, demonstrated by evaluations of protagonists and verbal affirmations of reciprocal behavior. Conversely, 3- and 4-year-olds valued general prosociality over reciprocity.

Defined as the tendency to repay positive and negative behavior.
Considered a powerful mechanism to establish cooperation and has evolutionary advantages as per Trivers (1971).

Game-theoretic models established that group-level contingent reciprocal behavior enhances cooperation (Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981).
Acting reciprocally promotes long-term benefits for individuals, illustrated by the behavior of human adults (Gurven, 2006).

The notion that reciprocity represents a universal normative principle for humans is suggested (Gouldner, 1960).
Empirical findings indicate that individuals experience guilt when opportunities to reciprocate are missed (Shumaker & Jackson, 1979).
Individuals adhere to reciprocity principles even counter to self-interest (Gallucci & Perugini, 2000) and even when acts remain unobserved (Burger et al., 2009).

Reciprocity underpins many social interactions and strengthens social relationships.
Examples include turn-taking and give-and-take scenarios in preschoolers' interactions.

Sensitivity to reciprocity has shown to begin in infants as early as their first year (Hamlin et al., 2011; Meristo & Surian, 2013).
Force-choice scenarios indicate toddlers demonstrate selective helping behavior (Van de Vondervoort et al., 2018) and early resource allocation fairness (Burns & Sommerville, 2014).

Warneken & Tomasello's (2013) model posits that children's initial prosocial behavior is shaped by reciprocal considerations starting around 3 years old.

It remains unclear whether children perceive reciprocity as a norm versus a strategic expectation.
Research distinguishing strategic behavior and normative evaluations is necessary.

Early demonstrations of normativity could be observed through verbal evaluations and protest behaviors indicating understanding of norms.
Studies show 3-year-olds protest against fairness norm violations while 5-year-olds affirm fairness norms (e.g., Rakoczy et al., 2008; Josephs et al., 2016).

Sample: 47 children (3-4 years) and 45 children (5-6 years); Participants from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds enrolled in European day-care centers.

Puppets used to act as protagonists and initial allocators across three sharing scenarios (match-high, match-low, and not matched conditions).
Utilized various items like cookies, puzzles, and stickers for sharing trials.

Match-high: Protagonist who received a large proportion reciprocated with a large proportion.
Match-low: Protagonist who received a small proportion reciprocated with a small proportion.
Not matched: Protagonist who received a large proportion reciprocated with a small proportion (violation of norm).

Each session involved warm-up trials, familiarization with task materials, and presentation of sharing scenarios.
Followed by punishment/rewarding and evaluation phases, assessing children’s responses based on observations.

Evaluative scales (4-point smiley system) used to assess children’s positive/negative responses toward protagonist actions.
Types of responses classified: action-based and reciprocity-based justifications.

3-4 year-olds:
- Positively evaluated match-high condition agents.
- No differentiation between match-low and not matched conditions (evaluations not significantly different from neutral).
5-6 year-olds:
- Positively evaluated match-high, negatively evaluated not matched agents significantly.
- Different compliance expectations based on evaluations regarding reciprocation.

Evaluation of Protest:
- 3-4 year-olds: More likely to protest against agents sharing a small proportion, no selective enforcement based on reciprocity norms.
- 5-6 year-olds: Tended to selectively affirm agents demonstrating reciprocity norm compliance.

A prominent allocation of tasty versus disgusting cookies based on reciprocity assessments was seen in younger groups but not older ones, signaling a lack of identification with punitive measures for norm violations.

Evidence points to the normative understanding of reciprocity emerging during preschool years, with distinct developmental milestones evidenced by age-based behavior differences.
Endorsement of reciprocity norms significantly present in older preschoolers (5-6 years).

Challenges in identifying the strength of reciprocity norms in young children, particularly in varied contexts.
Necessity to explore how different fairness norms interact, including cultural variances in reciprocity understanding.
Importance of assessing ongoing normative development post-preschool years.