Exhaustive Study Guide: AP Human Geography Unit 4 - Political Geography

Intro to Political Geography and the Concept of the State

Political geography focuses on the study of how people have organized Earth's surface into countries and alliances, reasons for these arrangements, and the conflicts that can result. A State is defined as an entity that controls a specific, defined area of the earth. It is characterized by having a permanent population and being sovereign, meaning it possesses an established government with total control over its internal and external affairs including its military and government structures. A state must represent itself at an international level and be recognized by other sovereign States.

There are entities known as Quasi-States, which possess some but not all qualifications of a full state. An example is Taiwan. While Taiwan was formed by Nationalists who were defeated by Communists in the Chinese Civil War and fled to the island to form a government claiming to be the rightful leaders of all China, China still considers Taiwan to be a part of its territory rather than a separate state. Other examples of complex political status include Macao and Hong Kong, both of which are designated as Special Administrative Regions. Questions regarding the true sovereignty of these areas remain central to geopolitical debates.

Colonialism, Imperialism, and the Legacy of European Expansion

A colony is defined as a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent. In many cases, the sovereign state controls the colony's military and foreign policy while leaving local matters to a varied degree of autonomy. Colonialism refers to the effort by one country to establish settlements and impose political, social, economic, and cultural principles on another territory. Historically, the primary motivations for colonialism were to promote Christianity, provide resources for the home country, and gain international power and prestige. Imperialism differs from colonialism in that it involves the control of territory that is already occupied and organized by an indigenous society, whereas colonialism traditionally involved land that was uninhabited or sparsely populated. Some countries acting as imperial powers owned both types of territories.

Major European countries that maintained colonies included Portugal, Spain, Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, England, and France. Colonial practices varied significantly between these powers. British colonies utilized different government structures and policies, often taking a decentralized approach to protect local customs and traditions, which facilitated mostly peaceful transitions to independence. In contrast, French colonial practices focused on assimilation, attempting to integrate colonies into French culture. This involved educating a small group of elite leaders to govern, many of whom remained loyal to France after their colonies achieved independence. Today, remaining colonies are often referred to as territories. Examples include Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Guam, and Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico has a population of approximately $4,000,000$ people, all of whom are United States citizens, though the population remains split between those who desire statehood and those who do not.

Political Power, Territoriality, and Shatterbelts

Territoriality refers to the efforts of individuals or groups to control pieces of the earth's surface for political and social purposes. This is often based on ethnicity and culture and reflects a deep-seated desire to label an area as one's own. A Buffer State is a state located between two larger, conflicting countries. Examples mentioned include Abakan, Belarus, Mongolia, and Nepal.

Regions caught between stronger colliding external cultural-political forces are known as Shatterbelts. These areas are under persistent stress and are often fragmented by aggressive rivals. Modern examples include Israel/Palestine and Kashmir. Historically, Eastern Europe served as a shatterbelt during the Cold War. Other potential shatterbelts include Iran, Syria, and various regions in Southwest Asia.

Defining and Functioning of Political Boundaries

A boundary is an invisible line marking the extent of a state's territory. These lines result from physical and cultural features of the land and can be a source of significant conflict both within and outside a country. In contrast, a Frontier is a zone where no state has complete political control. Frontiers are typically sparsely populated and exist outside organized society. Today, only two frontiers specifically remain: Antarctica and the Arabian Peninsula. Within the Arabian Peninsula, frontiers separate Saudi Arabia and Qatar, as well as the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen. Formerly, Iraq and Saudi Arabia shared a frontier, but this was converted into a formal boundary when both nations stationed troops in the area.

Boundaries are categorized into three primary types:

Physical boundaries: Based on natural landscapes such as mountains, deserts, and water.
Geometric boundaries: Based on lines of latitude and longitude.
Cultural boundaries: Based on ethnic, religious, or linguistic differences.

Physical and Geometric Boundaries

Mountain boundaries are effective because they are difficult to cross, but conflicts can arise over precisely where the border should be placed and who has access to resources. For example, Argentina and Chile agreed to divide their countries at the crest of the Andes mountains but could not initially agree on the exact location of that crest. Desert boundaries are useful as they are uninhabited and difficult to traverse, being common in Africa and Asia. In the Sahara, Algeria, Libya, and Egypt are located to the north, while Mali, Niger, and Chad are to the south.

Water boundaries include rivers, lakes, and oceans. They are easy to see on a map and generally unchanging, though rivers can slowly shift course, necessitating border renegotiations (such as the United States and Mexico border). In East Africa, the boundary between Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda runs through Lake Victoria. While water boundaries typically run through the middle of the water, the boundary between Malawi and Tanzania runs along the northern shore of Lake Nyasa due to colonial heritage (Tanzania was German; Malawi was British). Water boundaries offer protection against attack as defenses can be focused on landing areas.

Geometric boundaries are drawn according to coordinates. A $1,300\text{ mile}$ arc along $49^\circ\,\text{North latitude}$ separates the United States and Canada. They also share a $700\text{ mile}$ geometric border between Alaska and the Yukon territory at $141^\circ\,\text{West longitude}$ .

Maritime Law and the Law of the Sea

The Law of the Sea, signed in $1983$ by $117$ countries, established maritime rights and limits. It set a standard territory limit of $12\text{ to }14\text{ land miles}$ for state control.

The Contiguous Zone ( $12\text{ to }24\text{ Nautical Miles}$ ): In this area, a state can enforce laws regarding customs, immigration, sanitation, and taxation.
The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (up to $200\text{ NM}$ from the coast): States have the sole right to explore, extract minerals, and manage resources like fishing. Disputes regarding these zones are settled by a Tribunal. Issues often arise when countries are too close together or when specific states are cut off from water access.

Cultural Boundaries and Case Studies

Cultural boundaries are defined by differences in ethnicity, language, and religion. While the goal is often to avoid problems by separating different groups, this is not always successful. Religious boundaries helped define the split between Pakistan and India when Britain ordered the area divided into a state for Muslims (Pakistan) and a state for Hindus (India). This separation included the Tin Bigha Corridor, which India leased to Bangladesh to connect two pieces of Bangladeshi territory. In Ireland, religious conflict led to the creation of Northern Ireland (Protestant, part of the UK) and the independent Republic of Ireland (Catholic).

Language boundaries often define nation-states like France, England, Spain, Germany, and Italy. After World War I (WW1), many new states were formed around language, including Hungary, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.

Cyprus provides a unique case of a cultural boundary with the "Green Line." The island's population consists of $78\%$ Greeks and $18\%$ Turks. Following independence from Britain, ethnic tensions led to a Turkish invasion to protect the minority. This resulted in the isolation of the two groups. Only Turkey recognizes the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Despite this, Cyprus was accepted into the European Union in $2004$ and continues efforts toward reunification.

Boundary Processes, Classifications, and Disputes

The process of establishing a boundary involves three steps:

Define: Agreeing on the location.
Delimitate: Drawing the boundary on a map.
Demarcate: Physically marking the land.

There are five kinds of boundaries discussed:

Antecedent: Established before the area was officially settled (e.g., portions of the US/Canada border and boundaries in Borneo).
Consequent: Results from a cultural (religious or linguistic) divide, such as the borders between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland or the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Subsequent: Established after the area was officially settled.
Superimposed: Forcibly drawn across a unified cultural landscape by outsiders (common in colonial Africa).
Relic: A boundary that no longer functions but remains a historical reminder.

Boundary disputes are classified into four types:

Definitional: Conflict over the map interpretation.
Locational: Disagreement on the physical placement. This can lead to Irredentism, where a country seeks to expand based on historical or ethnic claims (e.g., Germany vs. Poland after WWI).
Operational: Conflict over how the boundary functions (e.g., the Schengen Area's lack of internal borders vs. stricter borders).
Allocational: Conflict over resources divided by a boundary. In $1990$ , Iraq invaded Kuwait, claiming Kuwait was extracting oil from Iraqi land.

Forms of Governance: Unitary, Federal, and Confederate

Government structures determine the level of voice granted to citizens and the size of central power. Authoritarian systems tend to be centralized, while pluralist systems allow for multiple local voices.

Unitary System: Power is concentrated in the hands of central government officials. While common in nation-states with strong national unity, it is not exclusive to authoritarian regimes. Examples include the United Kingdom, Japan, and Sweden. France is a key example, divided into $106$ departments where administrative leaders are appointed by the national government, though it is shifting toward more federalism.
Federal State: Strong power is allocated to local government units. This helps meet local needs and gives more voice to minorities. Examples include Canada, India, and the United States. Poland switched from a unitary to a federal system following the fall of Communism to allow local leadership and private control.
Confederate System: Power is held mostly by local/regional governments, with the central government having limited power granted by those states. The goal is to promote cooperation and local involvement. Examples include the United States under the Articles of Confederation and Switzerland.

Devolution is the release of power to a local level by a central government to recognize local needs, establish autonomy, and keep a country together by valuing differences.

Electoral Geography and Gerrymandering

In democratic societies, voting districts must be redrawn periodically to ensure fair representation. The census is used for Reapportionment, where the Federal government determines the number of representatives for each state in the house. In $1912$ , the house size was $435$ . In $1962$ , it became $438$ when DC was included. Redistricting is the process of state governments redrawing these boundaries to ensure each district has roughly the same number of people.

Gerrymandering is the process of redrawing legislative boundaries to benefit the party in power. It is named after Elbridge Gerry. There are three main types:

Cracking (Wasted Vote): Spreading opposition supporters across many districts so they are always the minority.
Packing (Excess Vote): Concentrating opposition supporters into a few districts to minimize their impact elsewhere.
Stacking (Stacked Vote): Linking distant areas of like-minded voters through oddly shaped boundaries to group minorities or specific income levels together.

Gerrymandering results in only about $10\%$ of congressional seats being competitive, makes it harder for challengers to win, and dilutes minority votes.

Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces and Devolution

Centripetal forces unify people and strengthen the state (e.g., shared ethnicity, religion, or history). Centrifugal forces divide people and weaken the state.

Autonomous Regions: Areas within a country with high local control (e.g., Nunavut in Canada, where indigenous populations requested and received control over health, housing, and education in the $1960s$ ).
Sakha Republic: The largest minority group (Yakuts) in Russia. They declared "state sovereignty" in $1990$ , elected their own parliament, and established special rights over mineral extraction and nuclear testing bans.
Catalonia: The wealthiest region of Spain (making up $16\%$ of GDP) with a distinct ethnic identity. A $2017$ independence referendum was declared illegal, leading to ongoing talks about autonomy.
Nigeria: Struggles with centrifugal forces due to division between the Muslim North and Christian South, hundreds of languages, and income disparity. They created a Forward Capital to help bridge these divides.

If devolution is unsuccessful, it can lead to Balkanization, the breakdown of a state through ethnic conflict.

Case Study: The Balkans and Yugoslavia

The Balkans were historically controlled by the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires. Yugoslavia was created after WWI to unite people speaking Slavic languages (Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians, Montenegrins). Josip Broz Tito ruled from $1953\text{ to }1980$ , famously noting the country had $7$ neighbors, $6$ republics, $5$ nationalities, $4$ languages, $3$ religions, $2$ alphabets, and $1$ currency. After Tito's death, ethnic rivalries led to the country's breakup.

Ethnic Cleansing occurred as powerful groups forcibly removed others to create homogenous regions. In Bosnia, which had no ethnic majority ( $40\%$ Muslim, $32\%$ Serb, $18\%$ Croat $), Serbs and Croats engaged in cleansing to join their territories to Serbia and Croatia. A notable event was the destruction of the Stari Most Bridge in Mostar in$ 1993 $by Serbs; it was rebuilt in$ 2004 $. In Kosovo, Serbs attempted to remove Albanians in$ 1999 $, leading to NATO intervention. The$ 1996 $Dayton Peace Accords divided Bosnia into regions, granting Bosnian Serbs$ 1/2 $of the country despite them being only$ 1/3 of the population.

Racial Issues in the U.S. and South Africa

In the U.S., ethnic politics were shaped by Supreme Court cases. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896 $) established "separate but equal," leading to Jim Crow Laws. Brown v. Board of Education ($ 1954 $) overturned this, ordering school desegregation. This shift led to "White Flight" and "Blockbusting," where white populations left cities in large numbers (Detroit's white population dropped by$ 1,000,000 $between$ 1950\text{ and }1975).

In South Africa, Apartheid was the physical separation of races into geographic "Homelands" or Bantustans. Afrikaners (Dutch descendants) passed these laws to maintain power. Every baby was classified into one of four races: Black, White, Colored, or Asian. These classifications determined where one could live and work. Apartheid was repealed in 1991 $following non-violent resistance and international sanctions. Nelson Mandela, a leader of the African National Congress (ANC) who spent$ 27\text{ years} $in prison, was elected president in$ 1994. However, economic disparities remain severe today.

Supranational Organizations and Global Cooperation

International organizations can be transnational (private companies like McDonald's or Nike) or Supranational (unions of member states). Supranationalism requires states to give up some individual control for collective benefits.

The United Nations (UN), established after the failure of the League of Nations, is the most important such group. It began with 49 $original members and grew to$ 191 $by$ 2003 $. The Security Council features$ 5 $permanent members with Veto Power: Russia, China, France, the UK, and the US. Major vetoes have occurred regarding the$ 2003 Iraq War, the Suez Crisis, and the annexation of Crimea.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): A military protection agreement formed post-WWII, currently containing 30 members.
Warsaw Pact: A former military agreement between Communist Eastern European countries as a buffer for the Soviet Union; it disbanded after the fall of the USSR.
European Union (EU): Aims for economic and political cooperation. It allows for the free movement of goods, services, and people (Schengen Area) and uses a common currency, the Euro, in the Eurozone (17 $EU countries and$ 6$$ non-EU countries).
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations): Focuses on SE Asian political and economic growth.
Arctic Council: Researches and facilitates environmental protection in the Arctic.
African Union: Aims for unity and sovereignty defense among African nations.
Arab League: Strengthens ties and coordinates policy among Arab-speaking nations in Northern Africa and Southwest Asia.

Questions & Discussion

What are the advantages and disadvantages of geometric boundaries?
Are there ways around the Law of the Sea limits?
What concerns exist regarding maritime holes or cut-off countries?
Why should we still care about relic boundaries, and where are they located?
What other migration concerns are visible in the Cyprus "Green Line" context?
Is Taiwan sovereign? What is the status of Macao or Hong Kong as Special Administrative Regions?