The Middle Passage and the Transatlantic Slave Trade: An Exhaustive Study Guide

The Definition and Fundamental Nature of the Middle Passage

The Middle Passage is defined as the forced voyage that enslaved Africans were compelled to take across the Atlantic Ocean to reach the New World. This journey represents the central leg of the transatlantic slave trade. The experience is often described through the metaphor of a downward journey into a dark, smelly tomb. Enslaved individuals were sold for trinkets, losing their perceived worth and future to the slavers. These individuals were forced to exist in spaces as small as three feet high, eating meals of cornmeal or "sorrows meal," while being made to dance and jump to the tune of a pointed gun for the amusement or exercise requirements of their captors.

The Slave Coast and Pre-Purchase Procedures

Slaver captains primarily anchored their vessels off the Guinea Coast, which was synonymous with the title of the Slave Coast. These ships would remain anchored for several weeks at a time to complete the trade for their human cargoes, which typically ranged from $150$ to $600$ persons per vessel. Before any purchase was finalized from African traders, doctors were brought in to inspect the enslaved people. The primary goal of these medical inspections was to determine which individuals were most likely to survive the grueling transatlantic voyage, ensuring the slavers maximized their investment.

Physical Constraints and Confinement Below Decks

On board the ship, captives were wedged below decks and chained to low-lying platforms that were stacked in tiers. The spacing provided for each individual was extremely restricted. For a male slave, the allotted space was typically $6\,\text{feet}$ long, $40\,\text{cm}$ wide, and perhaps $1\,\text{meter}$ high. Female slaves were generally provided with even less space than their male counterparts. This close confinement is further categorized into two philosophies of transport: loose packing and tight packing. Loose packing involved placing fewer slaves on a ship in the hope that a greater percentage would survive the journey. Conversely, tight packing was the practice where captains believed that packing more slaves into the hold, despite the higher casualty rates, would ultimately yield a greater profit at the trading block.

Conditions and Hygiene on Slaver Vessels

Specific ships known as slavers were designed for the middle passage. A ship of $100\,\text{tons}$ would generally carry $100$ slaves, though as the weight capacity of a ship increased, so did the number of people it could carry, with some larger vessels transporting as many as $700$ individuals. Due to the extreme density of people packed below deck, enslaved individuals were forced to defecate and urinate on each other. Hygiene was minimal, consisting occasionally of a bucket of water thrown onto the captives to wash away waste. This environment caused cuts and bruises to become infected quickly, leading to the rapid spread of disease. The heat below deck was often fatal, and in instances of bad weather, the combination of intense heat and harmful fumes led to outbreaks of fevers and dysentery. Dysentery is specifically defined as an infection of the intestines that causes diarrhea containing blood or mucus.

Nutrition, Exercise, and Daily Regimen

The enslaved were typically given a twice-daily ration of water. Food was provided twice a day and consisted of boiled rice, millet, cornmeal, or stewed yams. Many individuals attempted to resist by refusing to eat, effectively starving themselves to death. In instances where bad weather extended the duration of the journey, these already meager rations were reduced further, leading to widespread starvation. During the daytime, provided the weather was favorable, slaves were brought onto the deck for mandatory exercise, which essentially consisted of jumping. Those who refused to participate were beaten. During these exercise periods, some captains required the crew to scrape and wipe the sleeping quarters to maintain a minimum level of cleanliness. Air holes were cut into the deck to provide breathing air, though these were closed during stormy conditions.

Security Measures and Resistance

Slave ships carried an extra complement of crew members beyond what a standard merchant vessel required, primarily due to the constant danger of slave revolts and the rigorous demands of sailing such heavily laden ships. All seamen on board carried guns and pistols to maintain order and to defend the ship against pirates. The vessels were also heavily armed with between $20$ and $30$ cannons. Despite these measures, slaves did occasionally revolt when they were brought above deck for exercise. These revolts were met with lethal force, and the participating slaves were often killed to suppress the uprising.

Duration, Volume, and Mortality of the Middle Passage

The trans-Atlantic journey generally lasted between $21$ and $90$ days. Over the approximately $350$ years that the trade was active, it is estimated that well over $10\,\text{million}$ people were transported. Mortality rates were high due to several factors: the rare occurrence of shipwrecks, suicide, heatstroke, under-nourishment, and excessive cruelty. Disease and the killing of revolting slaves also contributed to the death toll. One of the most horrific causes of death was the deliberate drowning of slaves to claim insurance money, a notable example being the ship Zong from Liverpool in $1781$ . Overall, the middle passage was a period of extreme lethality for those involved.

Sale and Preparation in the West Indies

Upon arrival in the West Indies, many slaves were in an emaciated state, covered in sores and physically bent from the journey. To make them more marketable, they were taken to eastern Caribbean islands to be "refreshed." This process involved feeding them fresh fruits and other nutritious foods to improve their physical appearance. "Doctoring" techniques were also applied to hide ailments. Slaves were cleaned and oiled before being presented for sale. The buyers—consisting of planters, agents of planters, and factors (businessmen who dealt in slaves)—would then inspect the slaves' teeth, bones, and general physical condition.

Economic Values and Trading Hubs

The value of a slave was often influenced by the reputation of the specific tribe or region in West Africa they originated from. In the $1730s$ , a healthy, well-built slave could be sold for a price between $£30$ and $£40$ . In the West Indies, payment was frequently made in sugar, with the price of one slave roughly equaling $1\,\text{tonne}$ of sugar. Kingston served as the primary sale location for slaves destined for British islands. The profit margins for the trade were calculated by subtracting the expenses of maintaining slaves in the barracoons, the costs of the middle passage, and the cost of the refreshing process in the West Indies from the final sale price. The slave trade was eventually abolished in $1807$ .

Impact on West African Societies

The slave trade had a devastating impact on West Africa, primarily through massive depopulation. The loss of over $10\,\text{million}$ individuals does not include those who died during village raids or while waiting to board ships. This depopulation led to a significant decline in traditional crafts. Between the years $1000$ and $1600$ , West Africa was known for highly skilled brasswork in Oyo and Benin, as well as cotton cloth weaving and ironwork. Many of these skills were lost because the craftsmen themselves were taken as slaves. Furthermore, agricultural productivity declined as insecure conditions created a fear of planting crops that the survivors might not be present to harvest.

Questions & Discussion

1. How were the slaves stored on the slave ships during the middle passage? Slaves were wedged below decks and chained to low-lying platforms stacked in tiers. Each male had a space approximately $6\,feet$ long, $40\,cm$ wide, and $1\,meter$ high, while females were given even less room.

2. How did the conditions on board the ships lead to the slaves' death and cause sickness? The combination of extreme heat, lack of hygiene (defecating and urinating on one another), and harmful fumes in bad weather caused fevers and dysentery. Infected cuts and bruises, along with under-nourishment, further contributed to the high mortality rate.

3. In what ways did slaves rebel during the middle passage? Slaves rebelled by refusing to eat (starvation as protest), attempting suicide, and launching physical revolts when they were brought above deck for exercise.

4. What was the price range a slave was sold by? In the $1730s$ , a slave was typically sold for between $£30$ and $£40$ , or the equivalent of $1\,tonne$ of sugar.

5. How was a slave prepared to be sold? Slaves underwent a "refreshing" process where they were fed fresh fruits and better food, cleaned, oiled, and had their physical ailments hidden or treated by "doctoring" techniques before being inspected by buyers.