AMSCO 7.1

Quote by Russian Tsar Nicholas II (1905): "I shall never, under any circumstances, agree to a representative form of government because I consider it harmful to the people whom God has entrusted to my care."

How did internal and external factors contribute to change in various states after 1900?

Intense rebellion continued into the early 1900s.
Nicholas II failed to grasp political opposition, leading to his assassination in 1918.
Significant rebellions in Russia, China, and Mexico undermined long-standing authoritarian regimes.
Revolutionaries challenged political and social orders, establishing new political philosophies.
Established land-based and maritime empires faced collapse due to internal and external pressures.
A new global order emerged by the century's end.

Russia lagged behind Europe, the United States, and Japan in wealth and military power.

Lack of promotion of economic growth and modernization:
- Insufficient expansion of education for peasants.
- Inadequate infrastructure development (roads, transportation networks).
- Limited financial support for entrepreneurs.
Tsarist government resisted political reform, civil liberties, and broader participation in governance.

Weak economic base resulting in military weaknesses:
- Crimean War (1853-1856): Russia lost to the Ottoman Empire, supported by Great Britain and France.
- Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Russia's defeat marked the first time a non-Western power defeated a European state in modern history.

Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905): Peaceful protest by thousands for better working conditions led to over 1,300 protestors being killed by imperial troops.
Revolution of 1905: Responding to Bloody Sunday, 400,000 workers held strikes. Tsar attempted to appease protesters but faced significant violence.
World War I (1914): Poorly trained and equipped Russian troops faced disastrous hardships, leading to extreme food shortages among civilians.
Bolsheviks' Rise: In the fall of 1917, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power, establishing a communist government, aiming for worker ownership and collective prosperity.

Qing Dynasty struggled against internal and external pressures, leading to its overthrow in 1911.

Ethnic Tensions: Dominance of the Han Chinese over Manchu rulers, leading to widespread resentment toward Qing legitimacy.
Famine Threats: Rapid population growth outstripped food supply; natural disasters exacerbated food insecurity.
Low Government Revenue: Outdated tax systems prevented effective governance and maintenance of public infrastructure.

European industrialization threatened China's economic stability; European trade controlled by limited Canton city trading.
Traditional disdain for European products during this period.

Dr. Sun Yat-sen: Key figure in overthrowing the Qing, leading the new republic focusing on Confucian principles mixed with modern governance.

Democracy: Advocated for governance by knowledgeable experts, restricting sovereignty to those deemed capable.
Nationalism: Emphasized loyalty and patriotism toward central authority.
Livelihood: Aimed to address wealth distribution disparities and economic exploitation.

Limited military power led to power struggles with warlords; the Kuomintang later assumed power but struggled to execute Sun’s principles fully.

The Ottoman Empire, termed "the sick man of Europe," faced economic decline and loss of agricultural strength.
Reliance on trade without strong exports marked their weakness.

Emerged due to economic hardships, advocating for constitutional reform and Turkification.
Turkification aimed to unify the multiethnic citizenry under Turkish Identity, causing tension with Armenians.

Resentment toward European economic domination led to a secret alliance with Germany during WWI.
Post-war dismantling of the Ottoman Empire, leading to the creation of new nation-states, including Turkey.

Mustafa Kemal: Leader of the Turkish National Movement; defeated occupying Allied forces and established the Republic of Turkey in 1923.
Atatürk focused on westernization and secular reforms:
- Public education for both genders.
- Abolishment of polygyny.
- Expanded women's suffrage.
- Promoted Western attire and cultural practices.
Ruled as a dictator until death in 1938 but aimed to modernize Turkey along Western lines.

Mexico, under dictator Porfirio Díaz, experienced stability with significant inequalities favoring foreign investors.

Francisco Madero: Opposition candidate jailed by Díaz, led the revolution after escaping to form an alliance.
Key figures included Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, who advocated for land redistribution.
Political turmoil led to approximately 2 million deaths and prolonged instability.

Constitution of 1917: Instituted principles of land redistribution, universal suffrage, and public education.
Formation of Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1929: Dominated Mexican politics until 2000 despite allegations of corruption.