Unit 2.2 Review – Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision-Making

Unit 2.2 Review – Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision-Making

Verified for 2025 AP® Psychology Exam

Overview

This unit covers how we think, solve problems, make decisions, and the ways our brain sometimes takes shortcuts that can lead to errors. It focuses on concepts like heuristics, biases, executive function, creativity, and how experiences shape thought processes.

1. Concepts and Prototypes

We understand the world by mentally grouping similar things—this is where concepts and prototypes come in.

  • Concepts: Mental categories we use to group similar people, objects, or ideas.

    • Help us think efficiently and recognize patterns.

  • Prototypes: The “best” or most typical example of a concept.

    • The more an object matches our prototype, the more quickly we recognize it.

    • Example: For the concept “bird,” most people imagine a robin, not a penguin.

2. Schemas: How We Build Knowledge

Schemas are mental frameworks we use to organize info and guide how we interpret new stuff.

  • Formed from experience and updated over time.

  • Two ways we change schemas:

    • Assimilation: Fitting new info into what we already know.

    • Accommodation: Changing what we know to fit new info.

  • Schemas affect how we interpret what we see and how we respond to new situations.

3. Solving Problems: Algorithms vs. Heuristics

When tackling a problem, your brain can go slow or fast depending on how you approach it.

  • Algorithms:

    • Step-by-step methods that always lead to the right solution (if done correctly).

    • Slower, but more accurate.

    • Good for math problems or logic tasks.

  • Heuristics:

    • Mental shortcuts or “rules of thumb” for quick decisions.

    • Faster, but more error-prone.

Common Heuristics

  • Availability heuristic: Basing judgments on what easily comes to mind (e.g., vivid stories of plane crashes).

  • Representativeness heuristic: Judging based on how well something matches a prototype.

  • Anchoring: Relying too much on the first piece of info.

4. Decision-Making: What Messes With It

We don’t always make rational decisions—biases and context shape what we choose.

  • Past experiences (mental set): Using strategies that worked before, even if they don’t apply now.

  • Functional fixedness: Seeing objects as having only their usual use.

  • Framing effect: How info is presented affects decisions.

  • Priming: Recent experiences shaping decisions without us realizing it.

5. Common Biases and Fallacies

Our thinking can get tripped up in predictable ways. These might show up in multiple-choice examples, so get familiar with them.

  • Confirmation bias: Looking for info that supports what we already believe.

  • Hindsight bias: “I knew it all along” effect after something happens.

  • Overconfidence bias: Overestimating how accurate or skilled we are.

  • Gambler’s fallacy: Believing that luck has to “even out.”

  • Sunk-cost fallacy: Continuing something only because you’ve already invested time/money/effort.

6. Executive Functions: Goal-Directed Thinking

These are your brain’s “control center” skills that help you manage thoughts and actions.

  • Involves:

    • Working memory: Holding and using info in your mind.

    • Cognitive flexibility: Adapting to new or unexpected situations.

    • Inhibitory control: Resisting distractions or impulses.

  • Helps with:

    • Planning

    • Problem-solving

    • Staying organized

    • Goal setting

    • Decision-making

7. Creativity & Divergent Thinking 🎨

Creativity isn’t just about art—it’s about thinking in new ways or seeing multiple solutions.

  • Divergent thinking: Coming up with many possible solutions to a problem.

  • Creative process:

    • Preparation → Incubation → Insight (“aha!”) → Verification

  • Blocks to creativity:

    • Functional fixedness

    • Fear of being wrong

    • Self-censorship

Key Takeaways

Concepts are mental groupings and prototypes are their best examples.

Schemas organize knowledge and are updated by assimilation and accommodation.

Algorithms guarantee correct solutions; heuristics are faster but less reliable.

Common heuristics include availability, representativeness, and anchoring.

Decision-making is influenced by context, experience, mental set, and framing.

Cognitive biases like confirmation bias, hindsight bias, and sunk-cost fallacy distort reasoning.

Executive functions manage planning, working memory, and self-control.

Creativity uses divergent thinking and can be blocked by functional fixedness or fear of failure.