Honors Anatomy and Physiology Unit 1 Review

Body and Regional Terms

Acromial - top of shoulder

Antebrachial - forearm

Antecubital - front of elbow

Axillary - armpit

Brachial - arm

Buccal - cheek

Carpal - wrist

Cervical - neck

Coxal - hip

Crural - shin

Digital (Hand) - fingers

Digital (Foot) - toes

Femoral - thigh

Fibular - interior of leg

Frontal - forehead

Hallux - big toe

Inguinal - where thigh attaches

Mammary - breast

Mental - chin

Metatarsals - top of foot

Nasal - nose

Oral - mouth

Orbital - eye

Palmer - palm

Patellar - kneecap

Pelvic - pelvis

Pollex - thumb

Pubic - groin

Sternal - sternum

Tarsal - ankles

Umbilical - belly button

Gluteal - butt

Lumbar - lower back

Metacarpal - top of hands

Occipital - lower back of skull

Olecranal - elbow

Otic - ear

Perineal - tailbone

Plantar - bottom of foot

Popliteal - back of knee

Sacral - butt crack

Scapular - shoulder blades

Sural - back of calves

Vertebral - spine

axial - the portion of the body with the head, neck, and trunk

caudal - aka inferior or referring to the tail

mesentery - double layered membrane that anchors some of the abdominal organs to the body wall and provides a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs

mediastinum - the midline structural area of the thoracic cavity

negative feedback - deviation from the ideal normal values, on and off switch

pericardial - the serous membrane that surrounds the heart and its cavity

peritoneum - double serous membrane that lines and covers the organs of the abdominal and pelvic cavities

positive feedback - can create a viscous cycle leading away from homeostasis and possible death, pregnancy is common example

prone - to lie or be placed with the anterior side facing down

visceral - the part of the serous membrane that is in contact with the organ

Describe homeostasis and how it is usually controlled, including the 4 steps in this process Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions. It is primarily controlled through negative feedback loops, which work to reverse any deviation from a set point.

Here are the 4 steps in this process:

1. **Stimulus**: A change occurs in the internal or external environment that disrupts the homeostatic balance (e.g., body temperature rises).

2. **Receptor**: A sensor in the body (e.g., thermoreceptors in the skin) detects the change and sends information to a control center.

3. **Control Center**: Receives the information from the receptor, processes it, and determines the appropriate response. It compares the current value to a set point (e.g., the hypothalamus in the brain for temperature regulation).

4. **Effector**: Receives signals from the control center and produces a response that counteracts the initial stimulus

Explain the components and hierarchy of the structural organization of the body beginning with atoms.

The structural organization of the body follows a hierarchy of increasing complexity, starting from the smallest chemical units and building up to the complete organism.

1. Chemical Level: This is the most basic level, comprising atoms (e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen) and molecules (combinations of atoms, like water $(H_2O)$, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids).

2. Cellular Level: Molecules combine to form organelles, which are the functional components within cells. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms (e.g., muscle cells, nerve cells, blood cells).

3. Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function form tissues. There are four primary tissue types:

   • Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces, lines cavities and organs, and forms glands.

   • Connective Tissue: Supports and protects organs, binds tissues together, and stores energy (e.g., bone, blood, cartilage, fat).

   • Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement.

   • Nervous Tissue: Conducts electrical impulses and forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

4. Organ Level: Different types of tissues come together to form organs, which have specific functions (e.g., heart, lungs, stomach, brain).

5. Organ System Level: Multiple organs that work collectively to accomplish a major physiological function form an organ system. Examples include the digestive system, circulatory system, nervous system, and respiratory system.

6. Organismal Level: All the organ systems work together to make an organism.

Name the four most common elements in the human body.

The four most common elements in the human body are Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen.

Differentiate between ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds in anatomy.

Differentiate between ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds in anatomy.

• Ionic Bonds: These bonds form when there is a complete transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another, leading to the formation of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions). In anatomy, ionic bonds are crucial for the formation of salts and electrolytes, which are vital for nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and fluid balance.

• Covalent Bonds: These bonds are formed when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration. Covalent bonds (mostly carbon based) are very strong and are the most common type of chemical bond in organic molecules within the body.

  • Polar Covalent Bonds: Occur when electrons are shared unequally between two atoms due to differing electronegativities, creating a slight positive charge on one atom and a slight negative charge on the other. Water ($H_2O$) is a prime example, with oxygen being more electronegative than hydrogen.

• Hydrogen Bonds: These are weak attractive forces that form between a hydrogen atom that is already covalently bonded to a strongly electronegative atom (like oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine) and another nearby electronegative atom. While individually weak, collectively they play a significant role in the structure and function of biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), as well as in the unique properties of water.

Name the seven primary electrolytes in the human body. Electrolytes Ionize in solution and are capable of conducting electricity. The seven primary electrolytes in the human body are Sodium ($Na^+$), Potassium ($K^+$), Calcium ($Ca^{2+}$), Magnesium ($Mg^{2+}$), Chloride ($Cl^-$), Phosphate ($HPO_4^{2-}$), and Bicarbonate ($HCO_3^-$).

Why is water vital to life?

• high heat capacity prevents sudden temperature changes

• and excellent solvent nutrients, respiratory gases, and wastes can dissolve in water

• important reactant in many bodily chemical reactions

• serves as a protective cushion around organs such as the brain, cushions fetus

Acids and Bases on the PH Scale

• Blood is between 7.35 and 7.45

• acid/base regulation in the body is controlled by the kidneys, lungs, and a number of chemicals called buffers.

Name the four groups of important organic compounds in the human body.

• organic compounds that are carbon based, relatively large, covalently bonded

• carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids