Comprehensive Study Notes on Apartheid in South Africa

Overview and Ideology of Apartheid ($1948$-$1994$)

• Institutionalized "Apartness": Apartheid was a system of legalized, state-sponsored racial segregation and white supremacy implemented by the South African government.

• Goal of Separate Development: The regime claimed that each racial group could "develop" separately. However, this was a justification for maintaining white control.

• Shift in Equality Standards ($1953$): A major turning point occurred in $1953$ when the government decreed that public facilities did not have to be "equal" for different races.

• Core Pillars:

  • White supremacy and political dominance.

  • Strict segregation of all aspects of life.

  • Economic exploitation of non-white labor.

White Privilege and Political Control

• Control of Institutions: White South Africans maintained absolute control over political institutions, the labor market, and movement into cities.

• Economic Advantage: White citizens had exclusive access to the most privileged suburbs, jobs, and high-level positions. While white poverty did exist, the systemic structures ensured their overall dominance.

• Suffrage Restrictions:

  • Black South Africans were denied the right to vote in national elections. Suffrage was specifically banned in the Orange Free State and Transvaal.

  • In Cape Province and Natal, property and education requirements were used to limit non-white participation.

  • Black representatives were relegated to "Homeland" governments, which were not considered part of South Africa proper.

  • Coloured and Indian populations did not receive voting rights until $1983$.

Racial Classification and Hierarchy

• Legal Classifications: The population was officially categorized into four distinct groups:

  • White: Included those of Afrikaner or English descent.

  • Black/Bantu: Consisted of indigenous African groups such as Zulu, Xhosa, Sotho, and Tswana.

  • Indian: Descendants of migrants from the Indian subcontinent.

  • Biracial/Coloured: People of mixed racial heritage.

• Security Warnings: Racial exclusion was enforced with extreme violence. Signage at certain areas warned that "natives, Indians & coloureds" entering premises at night would be listed as missing, explicitly stating that "armed guards shoot on sight" and "savage dogs devour the corpse."

Legislative Framework: Key Apartheid Laws

• Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act ($1949$): Banned marriage between white individuals and non-white individuals.

• Population Registration Act ($1950$): Created a national register where every individual's race was officially recorded.

• Group Areas Act ($1950$): Legally codified residential segregation by creating distinct areas for each race.

• Immorality Act ($1950$): Prohibited sexual relations between white and non-white individuals.

• Suppression of Communism Act ($1950$): Outlawed communism but was widely used to detain anyone protesting apartheid policies.

• Bantu Authorities Act ($1951$): Created the legal basis for black homelands and their local governments.

• Separate Representation of Voters Act ($1951$): Specifically removed Coloured people from the common voter rolls.

• Bantu Education Act ($1953$): Established a separate and inferior educational system for black South Africans.

• Native Resettlement Act ($1954$): Empowered the government to forcibly remove black South Africans from areas designated for whites.

• Extension of Education Act ($1956$): Excluded black South Africans from white universities and established separate ethnic universities.

• Terrorism Act ($1967$): Allowed indefinite detention without trial for apartheid opponents and established a state security force.

Public Segregation and Living Conditions

• Petty Apartheid Signage: Public spaces like beaches, parks, and benches were strictly segregated. Signage used terms like "Net Nieblankes" (Non-Europeans Only) and "Slegs Blankes" (Whites Only).

• Statistical Disparities (circa $1978$):

  • Population vs. Land: Black South Africans made up $19$ million people ($75\%$-$80\%$) but were allocated only $13\%$ of the land. White South Africans (approximately $4.5$ million) controlled $87\%$ of the land.

  • National Income: Whites received $75\%$ of the national income, while Blacks received less than $20\%$.

  • Earnings Ratio: The ratio of average earnings between Blacks and Whites was $1$ to $14$.

  • Healthcare: The doctor-to-population ratio for Whites was $1/400$, compared to $1/44,000$ for Blacks. Infant mortality for Blacks was $20\%$ in urban areas and $40\%$ in rural areas, compared to $2.7\%$ for Whites.

  • Education Investment: The government spent $696$ per white pupil compared to $45$ per black pupil. The teacher-to-pupil ratio was $1/22$ for Whites and $1/60$ for Blacks.

The Bantustan (Homeland) System

• Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of $1959$: Divided the Black population into ten ethno-linguistic groups, each assigned to a "homeland."

• Territorial Allocation: These homelands were established on the territories defined by the Land Act of $1913$, forcing approximately $75\%$ of the population onto only $13\%$ of the total land.

• Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act ($1970$): Declared all Africans were citizens of their assigned homelands rather than South Africa. The goal was to ensure no Black person remained a South African citizen.

• Nominal Independence: Between $1976$ and $1981$, four homelands (Transkei, Venda, Bophuthatswana, and Ciskei) were declared "independent." This resulted in $8$ million people losing their South African citizenship, though no other country recognized their sovereignty.

• Reabsorption: The homelands were finally reabsorbed into South Africa in $1994$.

Forced Removals and Urban Segregation

• Group Areas Acts ($1950$-$1966$): Designed to eliminate mixed-race neighborhoods. It led to the destruction of homes and businesses and the forced removal of non-whites.

• Case Study: Sophiatown: During the $1950$s, this vibrant freehold township was razed. Residents were moved to Meadowlands in Soweto. A new white suburb was built on the ruins and named "Triomf" (Triumph).

• State Irresponsibility: In resettlement areas like Ciskei, the government often provided only toilets as facilities, taking no responsibility for human welfare.

• Resistance: Crossroads in Cape Town became an iconic squatter camp for successfully resisting government bulldozers in the late $1970$s and early $1980$s.

Regulation of Interracial Relationships

• Enforcement of the Immorality Act: Police used intrusive methods, such as peering through bedroom windows, to catch interracial couples in sexual acts.

• Blacking Case: Professor John Blacking and Dr. Zureena Desai were convicted under the Immorality Act in $1969$ and forced to emigrate to Britain.

• Trevor Noah's "Born a Crime": The comedian’s life illustrates the reality of being born to interracial parents when such an existence was a criminal offense.

• International Context: South Africa's ban on interracial marriage continued long after the United States' Supreme Court overturned similar laws in "Loving v. Virginia" ($1967$).

Pass Laws and Movement Control

• Natives (Abolition of Passes and Coordination of Documents) Act of $1952$: Contrary to its title, this act required all Black Africans over the age of $16$ to carry a "reference book" (pass) at all times.

• Penalties: Failure to produce a pass book to any policeman upon request was a criminal offense, punishable by a fine up to $10$ pounds or imprisonment for up to one month.

• Volume of Arrests: During the $1950$s, there were more than $500,000$ pass-law arrests annually.

The Educational System: "Bantu Education"

• Dr. H.F. Verwoerd's Philosophy: The "architect of apartheid" stated in $1953$ that "there is no place for the Bantu child above the level of certain forms of labour." He argued equality with Europeans was not for them.

• Educational Objectives: Schools were designed to train Black children for their specific "opportunities in life," which were restricted to manual and unskilled labor.

• Policy Impacts:

  • Removed state subsidies from religious schools.

  • Forbidden Black students from attending white institutions (with rare exceptions).

  • Mandated teaching of Bantu "cultural heritage" to reinforce secondary status.

• Attainment Disparities ($1970$):

  • $51.96\%$ of the African population over $16$ had no education, compared to $0.765\%$ of English whites.

  • Only $0.02\%$ of Africans held a Bachelor's degree, while $4.20\%$ of English whites held one.

  • Matriculation (High School completion) was just $0.38\%$ for Africans vs. $30.88\%$ for English whites.

Economics and Labor Exploitation

• Mining Industry Dynamics: Deep-level gold mining required massive capital and expensive machinery. To maintain profits, mining companies relied on extremely cheap, unskilled Black labor while protecting high-paying, skilled jobs for white immigrants.

• Income Shares ($1991$ ):

  • Blacks: $72\%$ of the population; $32\%$ share of national income.

  • Whites: $16\%$ of the population; $57\%$ share of national income.

  • Mixed (Coloured): $9\%$ of the population; $8\%$ share of national income.

  • Asian: $3\%$ of the population; $3\%$ share of national income.

• Definition of Labor: Prime Minister Hertzog defined "Civilized labour" as work done by people with white standards of living, whereas "Uncivilized labour" was restricted to those with "savage" needs and basic necessities.