Theme 4 Readings – Communism
Why Go to the Moon?
President Kennedy's speech at Rice University focuses on the justification and importance of the United States' commitment to the space program, with the primary goal of landing a man on the moon within the decade of the 1960s.
He highlights the rapid advancement of knowledge and technology, noting that most scientists the world has ever known are alive and that the nation's scientific manpower is doubling every 12 years.
Kennedy emphasizes that human history is marked by progress through challenges, comparing the space race to overcoming past frontiers and the nation's history of not being built by those who waited.
He frames the space race as a critical competition for leadership in the world, asserting that the US must be first to ensure space is governed by freedom and peace, not a hostile flag or weapons of mass destruction.
The speech connects the space effort to national security, scientific and industrial leadership, and the pursuit of peace and understanding.
Kennedy acknowledges the high costs and hardships of the space program but argues that the challenge and potential rewards are worth it.
He famously states the decision to go to the moon is made "not because they are easy, but because they are hard," serving to organize and measure the best of American energies and skills.
The President details the significant investments and technological developments in the US space program, including the Saturn rockets and the growing number and sophistication of American satellites compared to the Soviet Union's.
He anticipates that the space effort will enrich science and education, create new industries and jobs, and drive technological innovation.
Kennedy describes the immense scale and complexity of the mission to the moon, emphasizing the boldness required to undertake such a feat and to do it first before any potential adversaries.
He expresses his delight that Rice University is playing a part in this great national effort.
Kennedy concludes by linking the drive to explore space to the fundamental human desire for discovery and progress, stating "space is there, and we're going to climb it", similar to the motivation of climbing the highest mountain.
A Soviet Moonshot
The article discusses the Soviet Union's ambitions and ultimate failure in the crewed lunar landing race against the United States during the Space Race.
It highlights the Soviet Union's early successes in space with the first satellite, man, woman in space, and spacewalk.
Despite this initial lead, the United States was the first to land a person on the Moon in 1969, and the USSR never officially announced its intention to do so.
The diaries of rocket engineer Vasily Mishin, who succeeded Sergei Korolëv as head of the Soviet crewed lunar program, provide insights into the Soviet lunar aspirations and the reasons for their failure.
Mishin's diaries from 1960 to 1974 reveal the Soviet plans for crewed lunar landings, including necessary tools, maps, and spacesuits, as well as plans for circumlunar flights and testing of the N-1 Moon rocket.
A major setback for the Soviet program was the failure of the N-1 super-booster rocket, with all four uncrewed test flights ending in disaster.
The N-1 program was canceled in 1974, effectively ending the Soviet crewed lunar program.
While the US successfully developed the Saturn V rocket for its lunar missions, the Soviet Union struggled with its rocket technology.
Mishin's diaries suggest that the failure was not solely due to rocket engine issues, but also involved problems with hardware supply, the absence of a national space agency, low priority for the lunar program, and a lack of a long-term master plan.
The article concludes that Mishin's diaries help researchers gain a more complete understanding of the Cold War history and the complexities of the Space Race.
Hollywood Gossip as Public Sphere
The article analyzes Hedda Hopper's Hollywood gossip column as a form of public sphere during the Cold War, particularly in relation to anticommunist campaigns and the Red Scare.
Hedda Hopper, a politically conservative gossip columnist, used her widely read column to promote anticommunist agendas and mobilize her readers.
Analysis of letters from Hopper's readers reveals how her column facilitated the exchange of information, the formation of opinions, and the instigation of political action related to anticommunism in Hollywood.
Hopper and her readers shared information about films and filmmakers they suspected of communist sympathies or of producing communist propaganda.
They promoted the value of "Americanism", which for them encompassed anticommunism, economic freedom, national pride, and loyalty.
Hopper's column served as a forum for discussion and debate, particularly through the publication of reader letters and her responses.
A key controversy discussed was Lucille Ball's past Communist Party registration, where Hopper's sympathetic stance generated significant reaction from readers.
Hopper and her readers strongly advocated for the Hollywood blacklist, aiming to expose and prevent the employment of individuals with communist or left-leaning views.
They engaged in political action such as boycotts of films and performers perceived as sympathetic to communism or critical of American values.
Readers even created "red lists" of actors, writers, and directors to avoid in movies.
The article argues that Hopper's gossip column, with the active participation of her readers, functioned as a distinct and influential part of the public sphere, shaping opinions and driving political actions during the Red Scare.
Interestingly, many of Hopper's politically engaged readers rejected the label of "fan", likely to lend more legitimacy to their political discourse.
Resolution to Censure Senator Joseph McCarthy
This source presents the Senate Resolution to censure Senator Joseph McCarthy, passed on December 2, 1954.
The resolution details McCarthy's failure to cooperate with a Senate subcommittee investigating his conduct and his repeated abuse of the subcommittee and its members.
It also condemns McCarthy for attacking the Select Committee that considered his censure, accusing its members of "deliberate deception" and "fraud" and referring to the Senate session as a "lynch-party" and "lynch bee".
The Senate found McCarthy's conduct to be "contrary to senatorial traditions" and "contrary to senatorial ethics," tending to bring the Senate into dishonor and obstructing its constitutional processes.
The resolution was a response to disagreements within Congress regarding McCarthy's accusations and interrogation tactics in his fight against suspected Communists in the Federal Government.
The backdrop of the Cold War and fears of Communist influence is noted as the environment in which McCarthy gained prominence, despite often offering little proof for his claims.
However, McCarthy's bullying of witnesses during televised investigations of the US Army led to a shift in public opinion against him and ultimately the censure vote.
Republican Senators Ralph Flanders, Arthur Watkins, and Margaret Chase Smith are identified as leaders in the effort to discipline McCarthy.
What are the Origins of Communism?
This resource explains the origins and evolution of communism as an ideology and its implementation in various countries.
It notes a growing interest in communism among younger generations who see it as a potential alternative to capitalism due to issues like economic inequality and the climate crisis.
The article traces the theoretical origins of communism to Karl Marx, who envisioned a political and economic system without private property and a profit-based economy, aiming for equality and the liberation of workers from capitalist oppression.
Marx believed that a workers' revolution was inevitable to overthrow the capitalist system.
The resource then discusses how Vladimir Lenin attempted to implement Marx's ideas in Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution, but his rule involved suppressing dissent and deviated from a fully democratic Marxist vision.
It details how Joseph Stalin's implementation in the Soviet Union involved forced industrialization, agricultural collectivization leading to famine, political purges, and the establishment of a totalitarian regime, a far cry from Marx's ideals.
Stalin's policies also led to the Cold War conflict with the United States.
The article highlights the diverse interpretations and implementations of communism in other countries like China and Cuba, showcasing the gap between the ideology in theory and its practical outcomes.
The conclusion emphasizes that while communism as an ideology offers a vision of a more equitable future, its historical implementations have often resulted in significant harm and suffering.