Inter-War Period: Imperialism, Mandates, and Global Resistance

The conclusion of World War I did not lead to global stability; instead, it created conditions for significant tension across the world.
A primary source of this tension was the relationship between Colonial peoples and Imperial powers.
Colonial populations held a strong desire to expunge Imperial powers from their lands and gain independence.
Despite the contributions and sacrifices made by colonial subjects during the war, the Victorious Powers did not reward them with independence or self-rule.
During the inter-war period, European powers and Japan largely maintained their colonial holdings.
In several instances, states actually gained additional colonial territory as a result of the war's conclusion.

While many territories remained under colonial rule, some new states did emerge.
The most notable example is the Republic of Turkey.
Turkey was established under the leadership of Mustafa Kamal, who is better known as Atat Turk.
Despite this exception, in many other regions, colonial territory simply switched from the control of one imperial power to another.

The mandate system was introduced at the Paris peace conference that ended World War I.
The Victorious Powers intended to dismantle the Ottoman and German Empires, dividing their territories among themselves as "spoils for war."
U.S. President Woodro Wilson committed what was described as an "imperial party foul" by insisting on the principle of self-determination.
Self-determination was defined by Woodro Wilson as the right of states to govern themselves.
Colonial peoples worldwide interpreted Wilson’s advocacy for self-determination as a sign that the peace conference would lead to their freedom and independence.
The French and the British refused Wilson's idealistic ideas (referred to as a "rainbow milkshake").
A compromise was reached in the Middle East through the creation of the mandate system, where territories became mandates administered by the League of Nations.

The League of Nations established a three-tiered structure to classify territorial holdings: - Class C Mandates: These had the smallest populations and were considered the least developed. They were treated essentially as colonies. Examples include several islands in the Pacific which were taken over by the British and the Japanese. - Class B Mandates: These had larger populations but were still considered underdeveloped and not ready for self-determination. They were ruled by the Victorious Powers. Most of Germany's former colonies in Africa fell into this category and were divided among the victors. - Class A Mandates: These had large populations and sufficient development levels to be deemed suitable for independence and self-rule in theory.
In practice, Class A mandates were not granted immediate independence: - The British occupied Israel and Iraq. - The French occupied Syria and Lebanon. - These territories were treated no differently than standard colonies, despite their classification.
This transition from one imperial ruler to another led to fierce anti-colonial resistance among populations who had expected freedom.

Japan was unique in the imperial landscape as the only non-Western state to achieve a status equal to Western powers.
Following the patterns of powerful industrial nations, Japan sought to build its own empire.
1931: Japan invaded Manchuria to expand its empire and secure access to valuable natural resources.
This invasion was a flagrant violation of the rules established by the League of Nations.
The League of Nations lacked the power to enforce its rules, resorting primarily to "heavy finger wagging."
Consequently, Japan quit the League of Nations and continued its conquest.
1932: Japan took over parts of China and established a puppet state called Manuka.
Throughout the interwar period, Japan continued to seize territory in the Pacific.
Japan dubbed its area of influence the "greater East Asia co-prosperity sphere."

The Indian National Congress was formed in India (a British colony) in the late 19th century, prior to the war.
Its purpose was to formally petition the British government for greater degrees of self-rule.
Despite millions of Indian soldiers fighting for Britain in World War I, British domination remained fundamentally unchanged after the war.
A turning point occurred in the 1920s when mandes Gandhi became a significant leader of the Congress.
Gandhi led Indians in various acts of potent but peaceful protest against British policies.
While these acts laid the groundwork for resistance, independence was not achieves until after the Second World War.

The African National Congress was founded in South Africa by Western-educated lawyers and journalists.
The organization dedicated itself to obtaining equal rights for colonial subjects in South Africa.
The ANC was heavily influenced by the ideas of pan-africanism, which aimed for the unity and equality of all black people globally.
The ANC engaged in significant work opposing imperial racial policies.
Similar to the movement in India, full success for the ANC was not realized until after World War II.