PE notes

The Olympic Games

  • Held every four years, uniting the world in a major sporting competition.

Ancient Olympic Games

  • Traced back to 776 BC in Ancient Greece.
  • Heavily based on religion and a tribute to the gods.
  • Occurred every four years in Olympia, Greece, for 12 centuries until 393 AD when banned by Christian Emperor Theodosius I for being a pagan festival.
  • Served to:
    • Honor Olympian gods.
    • Showcase young people's abilities.
    • Promote good relations between cities.
  • A truce was declared to halt fighting during the games.
  • Married women were forbidden from watching and faced being thrown from cliffs if they tried.
  • The games expanded from one day to three and then five days.
  • Events included:
    • Athletic events.
    • Boxing.
    • Wrestling.
    • Pentathlon (running, jumping, discus).
    • Chariot racing.
    • Equestrian events.
    • Pancratium (boxing and wrestling combination).
  • Winners received laurel wreaths and palm branches and were highly esteemed.

Modern Olympic Games

  • Multi-sport competitions since the 17th century sought to revive the Olympic Games.
    • England's Cotswold Games.
    • France's L'Olympiade de la République.
    • England's Much Wenlock Olympian Games by Dr. William Penny Brookes in the 19th century.
  • In 1894, Baron Pierre de Coubertin established the International Olympic Committee (IOC), starting the modern era.
    • Inspired by team games in English public schools and their athleticism.
    • Aimed to improve the physical health of his countrymen.
  • The modern games are the world's largest and most famous sports event, held every four years with summer and winter sports.
  • Promote:
    • Personal excellence.
    • Sport as education.
    • Cultural exchange.
    • Mass participation.
    • Fair play.
    • International understanding.
  • First games in Athens in 1896: 241 male athletes from 14 countries in 9 sports.
  • London 2012: 10,500 athletes from 204 countries in 26 sports, showing significant growth.
  • Olympism includes:
    • Developing a lasting legacy for host cities.
    • Expanding sporting programs in developing countries.
    • Focusing on education and sport, peace and sport, women and sport, and sport and the environment.
  • Olympic values: excellence, respect, and friendship.

The Olympics and the Caribbean

  • Cuba first Caribbean country to enter Summer Olympics in 1900, winning gold and silver in fencing.
  • Haiti entered in 1924, but multiple Caribbean countries participated in 1948, including Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.
  • Jamaica's first gold medal won by Arthur Wint; Trinidad and Tobago's bronze by Rodney Wilkes in weightlifting.
  • Caribbean Association of National Olympic Committees (CANOC) was established after a 1998 meeting and adopted its constitution in 2003.
  • CANOC meets annually to discuss and enhance the region's Olympic Movement.
  • In the 2012 London Summer Olympics, 22 of 28 member Olympic Committees sent teams.

Trouble at the Games

  • 1936 Berlin:
    • Hitler used the games to promote Nazi supremacy and Aryan superiority.
    • Jesse Owens, a black athlete, won four gold medals.
  • 1956 Melbourne:
    • Britain and France invaded Egypt over the Suez Canal, leading to withdrawals from Egypt, Iran, and Lebanon.
    • China withdrew due to Taiwan's participation.
    • Netherlands and Switzerland withdrew because the Soviet Union invaded Hungary.
    • A water polo match between Hungary and the Soviet Union was abandoned due to a violent fight.
  • 1968 Mexico City:
    • Homeless individuals were removed from Mexico City.
    • Students protested against expenses; soldiers shot over 2000 rioters and bystanders.
    • Tommie Smith and John Carlos, black American sprinters, gave a black power salute during their medal ceremony and were expelled.
  • 1972 Munich:
    • Palestinian terrorists took Israeli team members hostage, killing two.
    • Demanded release of 200 Palestinians in Israeli prisons.
    • German police rescue attempt failed; nine hostages, a policeman, and five terrorists were killed.
    • The IOC decided the Games should continue.

Modern Olympic Games (Host Cities and Issues)

  • List of host cities from 1896 (Athens) to 2020 (Tokyo), including cancellations due to WWI and WWII.
  • 1976 Montreal:
    • The Canadian government faced significant debt due to industrial disputes and harsh winter.
    • The stadium was unfinished during the opening ceremony.
    • $1.5 billion debt was paid off by 2006.
    • Boycott by 22 African countries protesting New Zealand's rugby links with apartheid South Africa.
  • 1980 Moscow:
    • Boycott by West Germany, Kenya, Japan, Canada, and the USA due to the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
  • 1984 Los Angeles:
    • Funded by sponsorship and broadcast rights, marking a new era.
    • Made a profit of over $200 million.
    • Criticism for commercialization.
    • Boycott by the Soviet Union and allies, citing poor security arrangements, likely retaliation for the 1980 Moscow boycott.
  • 1992 Barcelona:
    • South Africa participated for the first time in over 30 years after being banned for its apartheid policy.
    • East and West Germany formed a single team for the first time since 1964.
  • 1996 Atlanta:
    • Centennial Olympic Park bombing resulted in one death and over 100 injuries.
    • The bomber protested against the USA's abortion policy.

Principles of Training

  1. Principle of Progression
    • Start slowly and gradually increase intensity to allow the body to adapt.
    • Overdoing exercise can lead to injuries.
    • Biggest changes occur early in the training program.
    • Fitness improvements slow as one approaches their full potential.
    • Maintaining a constant exercise level keeps fitness at that level.
    • Minimum of 20 minutes, three times a week for aerobic benefits.
    • Check readiness for harder work by asking:
      • Did you feel really bad during the exercise?
      • Did you have to stop?
      • Were you sore or stiff the next day?
    • If the answer to these is 'no,' training can be increased.
  2. Principle of Specificity
    • Focus on specific areas needed for a sport.
    • Determine which energy systems to improve: aerobic or anaerobic.
    • Consider fast- or slow-twitch fibres.
    • General vs. specific fitness requirements.
    • Address specific areas like agility or coordination.
    • Consider pressure training to assess skills under competitive stress.
  3. Principle of Overload
    • Fitness improves by exceeding normal activity levels.
    • Any exercise can be overloading for an unfit person.
    • Build up to at least three 20-minute sessions weekly.
    • Use FITT (Frequency, Intensity, Time, Type) to improve fitness.
    • Keep a training diary to plan future sessions.
    • Example timetable suggests breaking down swimming into intervals.
    • Overload via FITT: increase frequency, intensity, and/or duration.
  4. Principle of Reversibility
    • Adaptations from training are reversed when training stops.
    • Train every two to three days to maintain effects.
    • Reduce training level after 3-4 weeks of rest due to injury or illness.
  5. Variation and Recovery
    • Overtraining causes illness: soreness, joint pains, sleeping problems, loss of appetite, anxiety, and tiredness.
    • Rest for one day a week to recover.
    • Vary training to reduce ill effects and prevent boredom.

Methods of Training

  • Continuous training
    • Improves aerobic system and burns body fat.
    • Sustained activity (running, swimming, cycling, walking) for at least 30 minutes at the same pace without rest.
    • Overload by increasing time, distance, speed, or all three.
    • Increase time gradually.
    • Work in aerobic training zone: 60-75% of maximum heart rate.
    • Train up to 2-5 times the competition distance.
    • Disadvantages: lacks skill work, can be boring.
    • Sprint sessions may still be required.
  • Fartlek training
    • Swedish for "speed play," involves changes of speed.
    • Improves both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
    • Adaptable for running, cycling, skiing, etc.
    • Good for games players due to frequent speed changes.
    • Adjust mix of fast and slow work to suit sport and energy system.
    • Overload by increasing time or speed, or choosing more difficult terrain (uphill, sand).
    • Disadvantages: athlete-determined speed means coaches can't verify effort; requires high motivation.
  • Interval training
    • Fixed pattern of fast work with rest periods (active rest preferred).
    • Parameters can be adjusted for different events/activities.
    • Extensive intervals:
      • 60-80% of maximum heart rate (aerobic).
      • High reps, lower intensity.
      • Example: 20 reps of 500 meters at 65% of max heart rate with 30-second rest.
      • Improves aerobic endurance.
      • Overload by increasing reps, intensity, or reducing rest.
    • Intensive intervals:
      • 80-90% of maximum heart rate (anaerobic).
      • Fewer reps, longer rest (shorter distance).
      • Example: 10 x 500 meters with 1-minute rests.
      • Improves speed endurance.
      • Drawback: causes pain, requires high motivation.
  • Circuit training
    • Organizes muscle or skill training, typically 8-15 stations.
    • Different exercises at each station (e.g., step-ups, sit-ups, press-ups, squats, pull-ups, ski-jumps, dorsal raises, short sprints).
    • Set time on each activity (20-30 seconds).
    • Overload by increasing time, repetitions, or circuits.
    • Change muscle groups between activities to delay fatigue.
    • Advantages:
      • Adaptable to free weights or body weight.
      • Can be shorter or longer bursts (aerobic or anaerobic).
      • Can concentrate on muscle groups or skills.

The Foods Your Body Needs

  • Good health includes physical, social, and mental well-being.

  • Good health starts with a good diet.

  • Seven nutrients are needed to prevent malnutrition.

  • The balance of nutrients consumed needs to be altered at various times in our lives and sporting careers.

  • Three nutrients provide energy: carbohydrates, fats, and protein.

  • Nutrients are found in six food groups:

    • Staples
    • Legumes
    • Fruits
    • Vegetables
    • Fats and oils
    • Food from animals

  • Carbohydrates

    • Used for energy, broken down into glucose for cell respiration.
    • Some glucose stored as glycogen in liver and muscles.
    • Found in sweet and starchy foods (staples).
    • Sweet foods cause a quick energy rush followed by a sugar crash.
    • Slow-release energy foods (rice, pasta, corn, yams, cereals) are better.
    • Active sports people need 60% of their diet from carbohydrates.
    • High-carbohydrate meals are known as high-energy meals.
    • Be cautious of high-calorie intake off-season or when injured.
    • Starchy fruits (bananas and breadfruit) are high in energy and nutrients, low in fat.
    • Avoid fried foods and those high in fat with these fruits.
    • Limit cakes, sweet bread, and pastry due to high carbohydrate and fat content.

  • Fats

    • Also used for energy.
    • Muscles use a mixture of fats and glycogen; fat cannot be used alone.
    • The mixture depends on exercise intensity, duration, and fitness level.
    • Examples:
      • Long walk: mainly fat after 30 minutes.
      • Jogging: more glycogen usage.
      • Sprint: nearly all glycogen.
      • Hours of jogging: shift to fat as glycogen depletes.
      • Aerobically fit: muscles use more fat than glycogen.
    • Supplied in fats and oils group, found in animal foods, nuts, and some plants (e.g., avocados).
    • Avoid hidden fats in cakes and biscuits.
    • Carbohydrates are a better energy source for sportspeople.
    • Too much of the wrong fat can lead to high cholesterol.

  • Protein

    • Needed to build cells, make blood, and repair tissues.
    • Cannot be stored.
    • Found in animal foods and legumes, beans, peas, lentils, and nuts.
    • Used for energy only when carbohydrates and fats are depleted.
    • Excess protein can lead to kidney problems and joint injuries.

  • Vitamins and Minerals

    • Tiny amounts needed for energy use and health.
    • Some can be stored (vitamins A and D), others need regular intake (vitamin C).
    • Excess intake is excreted.
    • Found in all food groups, especially vegetables and fruit.
    • Deficiencies can cause problems for sportspeople.
      • Reduce oxygen-carrying capacity (iron and vitamin B).
      • Lead to weak bones (vitamin D and calcium).
      • Reduce muscle contraction ability (calcium).
      • Impair body repair, leading to reduced training or injury (vitamin B).

  • Fibre

    • Cellulose from plant cell walls.
    • Found in fruit, vegetables, brown bread, bran, and cereals.
    • Cannot be digested.
    • Important for:
      • Bulky mass for gut muscle action to prevent constipation and bowel cancer.
      • Absorbing poisonous wastes.
      • Creating a feeling of fullness to reduce eating.

  • Water

    • Does not give energy but comprises half your weight.
    • Found in blood, body fluids, and cells.
    • Vital for reactions.
    • Drink at least eight glasses a day; more if playing sports due to fluid loss through sweating.

  • Balanced diet

    • Includes carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins and minerals, water, and fibre in the right proportions.
    • Wellness is actively making changes toward a healthy life; eating sensibly from the six food groups is a step toward this.

A Balanced Diet

  • Energy Needs

    • Energy is needed even at rest to keep warm, the heart beating, and lungs breathing.
    • Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the energy needed to stay alive, awake, and warm.
    • Working energy is needed for movement and digestion.
    • Total energy needed = basal metabolic rate + working energy.
    • Measured in kilojoules (kJ) or kilocalories (C), where 1 kilocalorie=4.18 kilojoules1 \text{ kilocalorie} = 4.18 \text{ kilojoules}.

  • Factors Affecting Energy Needs

    • Age: More energy needed in youth, less after 40 when metabolism slows.
    • Sex: Males usually need more energy than females.
    • Lifestyle: More active = more energy needed.

  • Energy Content of Foods

    • Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins provide energy.
      • 1 gram of carbohydrate=17.1 kJ1 \text{ gram of carbohydrate} = 17.1 \text{ kJ}
      • 1 gram of protein=18.2 kJ1 \text{ gram of protein} = 18.2 \text{ kJ}
      • 1 gram of fat=38.9 kJ1 \text{ gram of fat} = 38.9 \text{ kJ}
    • Fat provides over twice as much energy as protein or carbohydrate, making it easy to overconsume.
    • Most foods are a mix of these nutrients; labels show the composition.

  • The Energy Balance

    • If energy intake > energy output, excess is stored as fat, potentially leading to obesity.
    • If energy intake = energy output, weight remains constant.
    • If energy intake < energy output, stored fat is used, resulting in weight loss; excessive loss can lead to anorexia.

  • Guidelines for a Balanced Diet

    • Match energy intake to sporting activity, to maintain a healthy build.
    • Long-distance athletes need plenty of starchy carbohydrates (at least 55% of intake).
    • No athlete needs to eat fatty foods, as excess carbohydrates convert to fat.
    • A balanced diet provides adequate fat, carbohydrate, protein, and vitamins.
    • Limit salt, sugar, fatty, and processed foods.
    • Eat plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables for vitamins and minerals.
    • Drink plenty of water before, during, and after exercise.

Weight Control and Exercise

  • Body weight depends on:

    • Height and frame size
    • Muscle and fat
    • Gender: Males are usually heavier than females.

  • Weight tables show ideal weight for a given height; exceeding this indicates being overweight.

  • Body composition (fat vs. muscle/bone) is a better indicator of fitness than weight alone.

  • Ideal body fat:

    • Males: 13-15% (overfat if higher, obese if over 20%)
    • Females: 18-20% (overfat if higher, obese if over 30%)

  • Some fat is needed for organ protection, warmth, and energy storage.

  • Obesity strains the heart, muscles, bones, and ligaments.

  • Being underweight can also be unhealthy.

  • Anorexia and Bulimia

    • Harsh diets can lead to anorexia, where the body uses protein from organs after depleting carbohydrate and fat stores, leading to organ failure and death.
    • Bulimia involves eating large amounts of food and then inducing vomiting.

Drugs and Sport

  • Athletes take drugs for:
    • Physical advantage
    • Perceived widespread use
    • Potential rewards
    • Pressure from others.
  • Risks include getting caught, shaming oneself and the sport, and physical harm.
  • Social drugs include alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, and cannabis.
  • Performance-enhancing drugs include:
    • Stimulants: Speed up reactions and reduce fatigue.
    • Narcotic analgesics: Painkillers.
    • Anabolic steroids: Increase muscle size and strength.
    • Diuretics: Help lose weight quickly or flush other substances.
    • Beta blockers and tranquillizers: Reduce anxiety.
    • Peptide hormones, mimetics, and analogues: Increase muscle strength, repair tissue, or improve oxygen-carrying capacity.
    • Blood doping: Injecting more red blood cells.
  • The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), established in 1999, combats drugs in sport.
  • Athletes are tested regularly, both in and out of competition.
  • Penalties for drug use include bans from the sport, sometimes for life.

Volleyball

  • Invented by William G. Morgan in the United States in 1895.

  • Originally called “mintonette”, designed as a less intense alternative to basketball for older YMCA members.

  • Used a tennis net at 6 feet 6 inches.

  • Modern volleyball is a competitive team sport with two teams of six players.

  • Objective: send the ball over the net and land it on the opponent’s court.

  • A team is allowed three touches to return the ball.

  • Games are typically played to 25 points (win by 2), matches best of 5 sets.

  • Court Layout and Dimensions:

    • Court Size: 18 meters (59 ft) long × 9 meters (29.5 ft) wide.
    • Net Height:
      • Men: 2.432.43 meters (7 ft 11 5/8 in).
      • Women: 2.242.24 meters (7 ft 4 1/4 in).
    • Attack Line (3-meter line): 3 meters from the net on each side.
    • Service Area: Behind the end line.

  • Players' Positions:

    • Front Row:
      • Left Front (Position 4)
      • Middle Front (Position 3)
      • Right Front (Position 2)
    • Back Row:
      • Left Back (Position 5)
      • Middle Back (Position 6)
      • Right Back (Position 1)

  • Positions Function:

    • Setter: Controls the offense.
    • Outside Hitter (Left): Main attacker.
    • Opposite Hitter (Right): Attacks from right.
    • Middle Blocker: Strong blocker.
    • Libero: Defensive specialist (cannot spike or serve in international rules).

The Muscular System

  • Muscles are involved in every movement of your body.

  • All muscles work by shortening or contracting.

  • Three kinds of muscle: voluntary, involuntary, and cardiac.

  • Voluntary Muscle

    • Attached to bones; works when you want it to.
    • Signal races from your brain to the voluntary muscles.
    • Also called skeletal muscle or striped muscle.

  • Involuntary Muscle

    • Found in the walls of your internal organs.
    • Works on its own; you don't need to think about it.
    • Also called smooth muscle.

  • Cardiac Muscle

    • Special involuntary muscle that forms the walls of your heart.
    • Works non-stop without tiring.

  • Muscle Fibres

    • Muscles contract because the fibres do.
    • Number of fibres contracting depends on how much force is needed.
    • Two types of muscle fibre: slow-twitch and fast-twitch.

  • Fast- and Slow-Twitch Fibres

    • Slow-twitch fibres: contract slowly and without much force, but do not tire easily; suited to endurance activities.
    • Fast-twitch fibres: contract much faster and with much more force, but tire quickly; suited to bursts of strength and power.
      • The mixture is different in different muscles.
      • The mixture is different for different people.
      • You inherited the mixture from your parents and it too late to change it now.

  • How muscles work:

    • Voluntary muscle usually works across a joint.
    • Attached to both bones by tendons.
    • When a muscle contracts, usually just one bone moves. The other is stationary.

  • Origin and insertion

    • Origin: Where the muscle joins the stationary bone.
    • Insertion: Where it joins the moving bone.
    • When a muscle contracts, the insertion moves towards the origin.

  • Muscles working in pairs

    • Muscles usually work in pairs or groups.
    • This is called antagonistic muscle action.
      • The working muscle is called the prime mover or agonist.
      • The relaxing muscle is the antagonist.
    • Synergists contract at the same time as the prime mover.

  • Tendons

    • The cords and straps that connect muscles to bones.

  • Muscle tone

    • Even when a muscle is relaxed, a small number of its fibres are contracted.
    • This state of partial contraction is called muscle tone.