PE notes

The Olympic Games

• Held every four years, uniting the world in a major sporting competition.

Ancient Olympic Games

• Traced back to 776 BC in Ancient Greece.
• Heavily based on religion and a tribute to the gods.
• Occurred every four years in Olympia, Greece, for 12 centuries until 393 AD when banned by Christian Emperor Theodosius I for being a pagan festival.
• Served to:
  • Honor Olympian gods.
  • Showcase young people's abilities.
  • Promote good relations between cities.
• A truce was declared to halt fighting during the games.
• Married women were forbidden from watching and faced being thrown from cliffs if they tried.
• The games expanded from one day to three and then five days.
• Events included:
  • Athletic events.
  • Boxing.
  • Wrestling.
  • Pentathlon (running, jumping, discus).
  • Chariot racing.
  • Equestrian events.
  • Pancratium (boxing and wrestling combination).
• Winners received laurel wreaths and palm branches and were highly esteemed.

Modern Olympic Games

• Multi-sport competitions since the 17th century sought to revive the Olympic Games.
  • England's Cotswold Games.
  • France's L'Olympiade de la République.
  • England's Much Wenlock Olympian Games by Dr. William Penny Brookes in the 19th century.
• In 1894, Baron Pierre de Coubertin established the International Olympic Committee (IOC), starting the modern era.
  • Inspired by team games in English public schools and their athleticism.
  • Aimed to improve the physical health of his countrymen.
• The modern games are the world's largest and most famous sports event, held every four years with summer and winter sports.
• Promote:
  • Personal excellence.
  • Sport as education.
  • Cultural exchange.
  • Mass participation.
  • Fair play.
  • International understanding.
• First games in Athens in 1896: 241 male athletes from 14 countries in 9 sports.
• London 2012: 10,500 athletes from 204 countries in 26 sports, showing significant growth.
• Olympism includes:
  • Developing a lasting legacy for host cities.
  • Expanding sporting programs in developing countries.
  • Focusing on education and sport, peace and sport, women and sport, and sport and the environment.
• Olympic values: excellence, respect, and friendship.

The Olympics and the Caribbean

• Cuba first Caribbean country to enter Summer Olympics in 1900, winning gold and silver in fencing.
• Haiti entered in 1924, but multiple Caribbean countries participated in 1948, including Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.
• Jamaica's first gold medal won by Arthur Wint; Trinidad and Tobago's bronze by Rodney Wilkes in weightlifting.
• Caribbean Association of National Olympic Committees (CANOC) was established after a 1998 meeting and adopted its constitution in 2003.
• CANOC meets annually to discuss and enhance the region's Olympic Movement.
• In the 2012 London Summer Olympics, 22 of 28 member Olympic Committees sent teams.

Trouble at the Games

• 1936 Berlin:
  • Hitler used the games to promote Nazi supremacy and Aryan superiority.
  • Jesse Owens, a black athlete, won four gold medals.
• 1956 Melbourne:
  • Britain and France invaded Egypt over the Suez Canal, leading to withdrawals from Egypt, Iran, and Lebanon.
  • China withdrew due to Taiwan's participation.
  • Netherlands and Switzerland withdrew because the Soviet Union invaded Hungary.
  • A water polo match between Hungary and the Soviet Union was abandoned due to a violent fight.
• 1968 Mexico City:
  • Homeless individuals were removed from Mexico City.
  • Students protested against expenses; soldiers shot over 2000 rioters and bystanders.
  • Tommie Smith and John Carlos, black American sprinters, gave a black power salute during their medal ceremony and were expelled.
• 1972 Munich:
  • Palestinian terrorists took Israeli team members hostage, killing two.
  • Demanded release of 200 Palestinians in Israeli prisons.
  • German police rescue attempt failed; nine hostages, a policeman, and five terrorists were killed.
  • The IOC decided the Games should continue.

Modern Olympic Games (Host Cities and Issues)

• List of host cities from 1896 (Athens) to 2020 (Tokyo), including cancellations due to WWI and WWII.
• 1976 Montreal:
  • The Canadian government faced significant debt due to industrial disputes and harsh winter.
  • The stadium was unfinished during the opening ceremony.
  • $1.5 billion debt was paid off by 2006.
  • Boycott by 22 African countries protesting New Zealand's rugby links with apartheid South Africa.
• 1980 Moscow:
  • Boycott by West Germany, Kenya, Japan, Canada, and the USA due to the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
• 1984 Los Angeles:
  • Funded by sponsorship and broadcast rights, marking a new era.
  • Made a profit of over $200 million.
  • Criticism for commercialization.
  • Boycott by the Soviet Union and allies, citing poor security arrangements, likely retaliation for the 1980 Moscow boycott.
• 1992 Barcelona:
  • South Africa participated for the first time in over 30 years after being banned for its apartheid policy.
  • East and West Germany formed a single team for the first time since 1964.
• 1996 Atlanta:
  • Centennial Olympic Park bombing resulted in one death and over 100 injuries.
  • The bomber protested against the USA's abortion policy.

Principles of Training

1. Principle of Progression
   • Start slowly and gradually increase intensity to allow the body to adapt.
   • Overdoing exercise can lead to injuries.
   • Biggest changes occur early in the training program.
   • Fitness improvements slow as one approaches their full potential.
   • Maintaining a constant exercise level keeps fitness at that level.
   • Minimum of 20 minutes, three times a week for aerobic benefits.
   • Check readiness for harder work by asking:
     • Did you feel really bad during the exercise?
     • Did you have to stop?
     • Were you sore or stiff the next day?
   • If the answer to these is 'no,' training can be increased.
2. Principle of Specificity
   • Focus on specific areas needed for a sport.
   • Determine which energy systems to improve: aerobic or anaerobic.
   • Consider fast- or slow-twitch fibres.
   • General vs. specific fitness requirements.
   • Address specific areas like agility or coordination.
   • Consider pressure training to assess skills under competitive stress.
3. Principle of Overload
   • Fitness improves by exceeding normal activity levels.
   • Any exercise can be overloading for an unfit person.
   • Build up to at least three 20-minute sessions weekly.
   • Use FITT (Frequency, Intensity, Time, Type) to improve fitness.
   • Keep a training diary to plan future sessions.
   • Example timetable suggests breaking down swimming into intervals.
   • Overload via FITT: increase frequency, intensity, and/or duration.
4. Principle of Reversibility
   • Adaptations from training are reversed when training stops.
   • Train every two to three days to maintain effects.
   • Reduce training level after 3-4 weeks of rest due to injury or illness.
5. Variation and Recovery
   • Overtraining causes illness: soreness, joint pains, sleeping problems, loss of appetite, anxiety, and tiredness.
   • Rest for one day a week to recover.
   • Vary training to reduce ill effects and prevent boredom.

Methods of Training

• Continuous training
  • Improves aerobic system and burns body fat.
  • Sustained activity (running, swimming, cycling, walking) for at least 30 minutes at the same pace without rest.
  • Overload by increasing time, distance, speed, or all three.
  • Increase time gradually.
  • Work in aerobic training zone: 60-75% of maximum heart rate.
  • Train up to 2-5 times the competition distance.
  • Disadvantages: lacks skill work, can be boring.
  • Sprint sessions may still be required.
• Fartlek training
  • Swedish for "speed play," involves changes of speed.
  • Improves both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
  • Adaptable for running, cycling, skiing, etc.
  • Good for games players due to frequent speed changes.
  • Adjust mix of fast and slow work to suit sport and energy system.
  • Overload by increasing time or speed, or choosing more difficult terrain (uphill, sand).
  • Disadvantages: athlete-determined speed means coaches can't verify effort; requires high motivation.
• Interval training
  • Fixed pattern of fast work with rest periods (active rest preferred).
  • Parameters can be adjusted for different events/activities.
  • Extensive intervals:
    • 60-80% of maximum heart rate (aerobic).
    • High reps, lower intensity.
    • Example: 20 reps of 500 meters at 65% of max heart rate with 30-second rest.
    • Improves aerobic endurance.
    • Overload by increasing reps, intensity, or reducing rest.
  • Intensive intervals:
    • 80-90% of maximum heart rate (anaerobic).
    • Fewer reps, longer rest (shorter distance).
    • Example: 10 x 500 meters with 1-minute rests.
    • Improves speed endurance.
    • Drawback: causes pain, requires high motivation.
• Circuit training
  • Organizes muscle or skill training, typically 8-15 stations.
  • Different exercises at each station (e.g., step-ups, sit-ups, press-ups, squats, pull-ups, ski-jumps, dorsal raises, short sprints).
  • Set time on each activity (20-30 seconds).
  • Overload by increasing time, repetitions, or circuits.
  • Change muscle groups between activities to delay fatigue.
  • Advantages:
    • Adaptable to free weights or body weight.
    • Can be shorter or longer bursts (aerobic or anaerobic).
    • Can concentrate on muscle groups or skills.

The Foods Your Body Needs

• Good health includes physical, social, and mental well-being.

• Good health starts with a good diet.

• Seven nutrients are needed to prevent malnutrition.

• The balance of nutrients consumed needs to be altered at various times in our lives and sporting careers.

• Three nutrients provide energy: carbohydrates, fats, and protein.

• Nutrients are found in six food groups:

  • Staples
  • Legumes
  • Fruits
  • Vegetables
  • Fats and oils
  • Food from animals

• Carbohydrates

  • Used for energy, broken down into glucose for cell respiration.
  • Some glucose stored as glycogen in liver and muscles.
  • Found in sweet and starchy foods (staples).
  • Sweet foods cause a quick energy rush followed by a sugar crash.
  • Slow-release energy foods (rice, pasta, corn, yams, cereals) are better.
  • Active sports people need 60% of their diet from carbohydrates.
  • High-carbohydrate meals are known as high-energy meals.
  • Be cautious of high-calorie intake off-season or when injured.
  • Starchy fruits (bananas and breadfruit) are high in energy and nutrients, low in fat.
  • Avoid fried foods and those high in fat with these fruits.
  • Limit cakes, sweet bread, and pastry due to high carbohydrate and fat content.

• Fats

  • Also used for energy.
  • Muscles use a mixture of fats and glycogen; fat cannot be used alone.
  • The mixture depends on exercise intensity, duration, and fitness level.
  • Examples:
    • Long walk: mainly fat after 30 minutes.
    • Jogging: more glycogen usage.
    • Sprint: nearly all glycogen.
    • Hours of jogging: shift to fat as glycogen depletes.
    • Aerobically fit: muscles use more fat than glycogen.
  • Supplied in fats and oils group, found in animal foods, nuts, and some plants (e.g., avocados).
  • Avoid hidden fats in cakes and biscuits.
  • Carbohydrates are a better energy source for sportspeople.
  • Too much of the wrong fat can lead to high cholesterol.

• Protein

  • Needed to build cells, make blood, and repair tissues.
  • Cannot be stored.
  • Found in animal foods and legumes, beans, peas, lentils, and nuts.
  • Used for energy only when carbohydrates and fats are depleted.
  • Excess protein can lead to kidney problems and joint injuries.

• Vitamins and Minerals

  • Tiny amounts needed for energy use and health.
  • Some can be stored (vitamins A and D), others need regular intake (vitamin C).
  • Excess intake is excreted.
  • Found in all food groups, especially vegetables and fruit.
  • Deficiencies can cause problems for sportspeople.
    • Reduce oxygen-carrying capacity (iron and vitamin B).
    • Lead to weak bones (vitamin D and calcium).
    • Reduce muscle contraction ability (calcium).
    • Impair body repair, leading to reduced training or injury (vitamin B).

• Fibre

  • Cellulose from plant cell walls.
  • Found in fruit, vegetables, brown bread, bran, and cereals.
  • Cannot be digested.
  • Important for:
    • Bulky mass for gut muscle action to prevent constipation and bowel cancer.
    • Absorbing poisonous wastes.
    • Creating a feeling of fullness to reduce eating.

• Water

  • Does not give energy but comprises half your weight.
  • Found in blood, body fluids, and cells.
  • Vital for reactions.
  • Drink at least eight glasses a day; more if playing sports due to fluid loss through sweating.

• Balanced diet

  • Includes carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins and minerals, water, and fibre in the right proportions.
  • Wellness is actively making changes toward a healthy life; eating sensibly from the six food groups is a step toward this.

A Balanced Diet

• Energy Needs

  • Energy is needed even at rest to keep warm, the heart beating, and lungs breathing.
  • Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the energy needed to stay alive, awake, and warm.
  • Working energy is needed for movement and digestion.
  • Total energy needed = basal metabolic rate + working energy.
  • Measured in kilojoules (kJ) or kilocalories (C), where 1 \text{ kilocalorie} = 4.18 \text{ kilojoules}.

• Factors Affecting Energy Needs

  • Age: More energy needed in youth, less after 40 when metabolism slows.
  • Sex: Males usually need more energy than females.
  • Lifestyle: More active = more energy needed.

• Energy Content of Foods

  • Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins provide energy.
    • 1 \text{ gram of carbohydrate} = 17.1 \text{ kJ}
    • 1 \text{ gram of protein} = 18.2 \text{ kJ}
    • 1 \text{ gram of fat} = 38.9 \text{ kJ}
  • Fat provides over twice as much energy as protein or carbohydrate, making it easy to overconsume.
  • Most foods are a mix of these nutrients; labels show the composition.

• The Energy Balance

  • If energy intake > energy output, excess is stored as fat, potentially leading to obesity.
  • If energy intake = energy output, weight remains constant.
  • If energy intake < energy output, stored fat is used, resulting in weight loss; excessive loss can lead to anorexia.

• Guidelines for a Balanced Diet

  • Match energy intake to sporting activity, to maintain a healthy build.
  • Long-distance athletes need plenty of starchy carbohydrates (at least 55% of intake).
  • No athlete needs to eat fatty foods, as excess carbohydrates convert to fat.
  • A balanced diet provides adequate fat, carbohydrate, protein, and vitamins.
  • Limit salt, sugar, fatty, and processed foods.
  • Eat plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables for vitamins and minerals.
  • Drink plenty of water before, during, and after exercise.

Weight Control and Exercise

• Body weight depends on:

  • Height and frame size
  • Muscle and fat
  • Gender: Males are usually heavier than females.

• Weight tables show ideal weight for a given height; exceeding this indicates being overweight.

• Body composition (fat vs. muscle/bone) is a better indicator of fitness than weight alone.

• Ideal body fat:

  • Males: 13-15% (overfat if higher, obese if over 20%)
  • Females: 18-20% (overfat if higher, obese if over 30%)

• Some fat is needed for organ protection, warmth, and energy storage.

• Obesity strains the heart, muscles, bones, and ligaments.

• Being underweight can also be unhealthy.

• Anorexia and Bulimia

  • Harsh diets can lead to anorexia, where the body uses protein from organs after depleting carbohydrate and fat stores, leading to organ failure and death.
  • Bulimia involves eating large amounts of food and then inducing vomiting.

Drugs and Sport

• Athletes take drugs for:
  • Physical advantage
  • Perceived widespread use
  • Potential rewards
  • Pressure from others.
• Risks include getting caught, shaming oneself and the sport, and physical harm.
• Social drugs include alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, and cannabis.
• Performance-enhancing drugs include:
  • Stimulants: Speed up reactions and reduce fatigue.
  • Narcotic analgesics: Painkillers.
  • Anabolic steroids: Increase muscle size and strength.
  • Diuretics: Help lose weight quickly or flush other substances.
  • Beta blockers and tranquillizers: Reduce anxiety.
  • Peptide hormones, mimetics, and analogues: Increase muscle strength, repair tissue, or improve oxygen-carrying capacity.
  • Blood doping: Injecting more red blood cells.
• The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), established in 1999, combats drugs in sport.
• Athletes are tested regularly, both in and out of competition.
• Penalties for drug use include bans from the sport, sometimes for life.

Volleyball

• Invented by William G. Morgan in the United States in 1895.

• Originally called “mintonette”, designed as a less intense alternative to basketball for older YMCA members.

• Used a tennis net at 6 feet 6 inches.

• Modern volleyball is a competitive team sport with two teams of six players.

• Objective: send the ball over the net and land it on the opponent’s court.

• A team is allowed three touches to return the ball.

• Games are typically played to 25 points (win by 2), matches best of 5 sets.

• Court Layout and Dimensions:

  • Court Size: 18 meters (59 ft) long × 9 meters (29.5 ft) wide.
  • Net Height:
    • Men: 2.43 meters (7 ft 11 5/8 in).
    • Women: 2.24 meters (7 ft 4 1/4 in).
  • Attack Line (3-meter line): 3 meters from the net on each side.
  • Service Area: Behind the end line.

• Players' Positions:

  • Front Row:
    • Left Front (Position 4)
    • Middle Front (Position 3)
    • Right Front (Position 2)
  • Back Row:
    • Left Back (Position 5)
    • Middle Back (Position 6)
    • Right Back (Position 1)

• Positions Function:

  • Setter: Controls the offense.
  • Outside Hitter (Left): Main attacker.
  • Opposite Hitter (Right): Attacks from right.
  • Middle Blocker: Strong blocker.
  • Libero: Defensive specialist (cannot spike or serve in international rules).

The Muscular System

• Muscles are involved in every movement of your body.

• All muscles work by shortening or contracting.

• Three kinds of muscle: voluntary, involuntary, and cardiac.

• Voluntary Muscle

  • Attached to bones; works when you want it to.
  • Signal races from your brain to the voluntary muscles.
  • Also called skeletal muscle or striped muscle.

• Involuntary Muscle

  • Found in the walls of your internal organs.
  • Works on its own; you don't need to think about it.
  • Also called smooth muscle.

• Cardiac Muscle

  • Special involuntary muscle that forms the walls of your heart.
  • Works non-stop without tiring.

• Muscle Fibres

  • Muscles contract because the fibres do.
  • Number of fibres contracting depends on how much force is needed.
  • Two types of muscle fibre: slow-twitch and fast-twitch.

• Fast- and Slow-Twitch Fibres

  • Slow-twitch fibres: contract slowly and without much force, but do not tire easily; suited to endurance activities.
  • Fast-twitch fibres: contract much faster and with much more force, but tire quickly; suited to bursts of strength and power.
    • The mixture is different in different muscles.
    • The mixture is different for different people.
    • You inherited the mixture from your parents and it too late to change it now.

• How muscles work:

  • Voluntary muscle usually works across a joint.
  • Attached to both bones by tendons.
  • When a muscle contracts, usually just one bone moves. The other is stationary.

• Origin and insertion

  • Origin: Where the muscle joins the stationary bone.
  • Insertion: Where it joins the moving bone.
  • When a muscle contracts, the insertion moves towards the origin.

• Muscles working in pairs

  • Muscles usually work in pairs or groups.
  • This is called antagonistic muscle action.
    • The working muscle is called the prime mover or agonist.
    • The relaxing muscle is the antagonist.
  • Synergists contract at the same time as the prime mover.

• Tendons

  • The cords and straps that connect muscles to bones.

• Muscle tone

  • Even when a muscle is relaxed, a small number of its fibres are contracted.
  • This state of partial contraction is called muscle tone.