Unit 5 & 6

Unit 5: Revolutions 1750-1900

Section 5.1: The Enlightenment

  • Definition: The Enlightenment was a period from the early 1700s to the late 1700s characterized by an increase in questioning traditional values, emphasizing thinking, logic, and reason.
  • Key Philosophers & Ideas:
      - Philosophés: Reformers who applied new understanding and empirical approaches to both the natural world and human relationships while reevaluating religion's role in public life. They emphasized reason's importance.

Pre-Enlightenment Thinkers

  • Thomas Hobbes:
      - Significant political theorist during the English Civil War.
      - Beliefs:
        - Law and order are paramount.
        - Preferred a bad leader to no leader at all.
        - Individuals give up their rights to a ruler in exchange for law and order, known as social contract theory.

  • Social Contract Theory:
      - Describes the implicit agreement among individuals in a society where they consent to define and limit their rights to secure social order.

  • John Locke:
      - Wrote after the English Civil War.
      - Beliefs:
        - All people possess natural rights: Life, Liberty, Property.
        - Contended that giving up rights isn't necessary for law and order.

  • Montesquieu:
      - Published works in 1715, launching the Age of Enlightenment.
      - Advocated for separation of powers: the division of political power across different government branches (Executive, Legislative, Judicial).
        - This principle influenced the formation of the American government.

  • Voltaire:
      - Prominent Enlightenment thinker and writer.
      - Critical of tyranny, advocated for freedom of religion, and right to a fair trial.
      - Noted: "Common sense is not so common." and that it is dangerous to be right when authorities are wrong.

  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau:
      - Argued that "all people are born free, but everywhere they are in chains."
      - Promoted popular sovereignty: the idea that governments must operate with the consent of the people.
      - Argued against social classes and nobility.

Political Effects of the Enlightenment

  • Enlightenment ideas challenged traditional royal authority, empowering people as key political participants.
  • Led to the rise of nationalism as a major influence in states' development and the emergence of collective identities.

Societal Effects of the Enlightenment

  • The Enlightenment spurred reform movements that expanded rights:
      - Expanded suffrage to all men
      - Abolition of slavery (notably in mid-1800s)
      - End of serfdom in Russia (1861)

  • Women's Rights:
      - Enlightenment period saw women demand equal treatment.
      - Key figures include:
        - Mary Wollstonecraft: Authored A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1790), advocating for women's education.
        - Olympe de Gouges: Authored the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen (1791), asserting equal rights for women.
        - Seneca Falls Conference: Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott in 1848, advocating for women's voting rights.

Section 5.2: Nationalism and Revolutions

Fever Model of Revolutions

  • Political revolutions follow a predictable pattern:

  • Incubation Stage:
      - Involves underlying causes (political/social/economic) that may take years to manifest into revolutionary actions.

  • Symptomatic Stage:
      - Characterized by initial direct actions such as publications advocating change or riots.

  • Crisis Stage:
      - The critical point where conflict arises, potentially leading to war. Revolutions that survive tend to succeed, while failures result in failed rebellions.

  • Convalescence Stage:
      - Recovery phase from the crisis, requiring addressing grievances but not necessarily resolving them to all parties’ satisfaction.

American Revolution

  • Background: During the late 1700s, King George III increased taxation on American colonies to manage debts, primarily from the French and Indian War.
      - The colonists protested against taxation without representation in Parliament, opposing this taxation as a violation of their rights similar to the Magna Carta.

  • Thomas Jefferson:
      - Enlightenment thinker and leading figure in the American Revolution.
      - Collaborated with other colonists in 1776 to draft the Declaration of Independence, asserting separation from Britain.

  • Outcome:
      - The revolution required military action to secure independence. General Cornwallis led British forces while General George Washington commanded American troops.
      - In 1781, the Americans emerged victorious, officially recognized as an independent nation in 1783.

The Constitution and Bill of Rights
  • Constitution (1787): Created the U.S. government, emphasizing checks and balances to prevent the concentration of power.
  • Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the Constitution established essential liberties; influenced significantly by Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, Rousseau, and Voltaire.
Pre-existing Troubles in France
  • During the same period, France was ruled by Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette; societal divisions were apparent in the Estates General:
      - 1st Estate: Clergy, exempt from taxes.
      - 2nd Estate: Rich Nobles, paid minimal taxes.
      - 3rd Estate: Comprising 98% of the population, faced heavy taxation and had poor living conditions.
Beginning of the French Revolution
  • The Third Estate's frustration led to revolutionary actions, forming the National Assembly and attacking the Bastille.
  • The Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man, asserting rights for all French citizens.
French Revolution
  • The government transitioned names several times, culminating in the National Convention, which executed Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette using a guillotine, leading to a power struggle amongst revolutionaries.
Reign of Terror
  • Atrocities during the Reign of Terror saw radical groups such as the Jacobins, led by Robespierre, execute thousands, including suspected enemies of the revolution.
      - Over 16,000 were killed, and eventually, even Robespierre was executed.
Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

  • Napoleon secured stability post-revolution,
      - Crowned himself Emperor of France and expanded French territory through warfare.

  • Napoleonic Code: A unified law code introduced,
      - Forbidding privileges based on birth, promoting religious freedom, and ensuring government positions were allocated based on merit.

Mistakes and Downfall of Napoleon

  • Napoleon's major missteps included:
      - Attempting to sabotage the British economy, which resulted in economic sabotage against France.
      - Engaging in costly invasions, notably suffering losses during the failed invasion of Russia due to the severe winter.

  • After experiencing defeats, Napoleon was exiled, firstly to Elba, attempted a comeback, yet ultimately was defeated and sent to St. Helena, marking the return of the monarchy to France.

Congress of Vienna (1814)

  • After Napoleon's defeat, major European powers convened to restore order:
      - Goals included preventing future French expansion, re-establishing a balance of power, and restoring monarchies.

  • Effects:
      - German states formed the German Confederation, Prussia rising in power, and peace was restored in Europe, albeit temporarily.

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)
  • Occurred in Saint-Domingue, a French colony, with figures such as Toussaint L’Ouverture leading revolts against slavery, ultimately establishing Haiti as the first independent Latin American country.
Mexican Independence
  • Sparked by Napoleon's influence, Padre Miguel Hidalgo initiated independence in 1810, followed by leadership transitions ultimately resulting in Mexico’s independence in 1821.
Latin American Revolutions
  • Leader Simon Bolívar fought for independence across Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia, and more, detailing goals in the Jamaica Letter which expressed intentions for an independent Latin America.
Nationalism and Nation-State
  • Nationalism: Loyalty primarily to one’s nation rather than a king or empire.
  • A nation-state is defined as a nation with its own sovereign land.
Growing Nationalism (1848 Revolutions)
  • Nationalism fueled uprisings across Europe, resulting in the establishment of republics, notably in France with the Second Republic under Louis Napoleon.
Balkan Nationalism
  • Declining Ottoman influence allowed Balkan states like Serbia and Greece to gain independence, supported by Western European and Russian intervention.
States of Nationalism Worldwide
  • Various nationalist movements arose globally; notable individuals included:
      - Puerto Rican poet Lola Rodriguez de Tío advocating for independence.
      - Philippine activists sought rights before and during Spanish rule.
      - Maori nationalism in New Zealand during colonial conflicts.
      - Ottomanism, which viewed all ethnicities in the Ottoman Empire as equal.

Section 5.3: Industrial Revolution Begins 1750-1900

Pre-Industrial Society
  • Before the Industrial Revolution, most people engaged in agriculture, producing goods locally.
Factors Leading to Industrialization
  • Key factors included:
      - Geographical advantages like access to waterways.
      - Abundance of natural resources (coal, iron, timber).
      - Urbanization trends with workers moving to cities due to the Enclosure Acts.
      - Legal frameworks supporting private property and capital accumulation.
Spread of Industrialization
  • Industrial methods spread from Northwestern Europe to places like:
      - North America (by 1850),
      - Japan (by 1870),
      - Russia (by 1930).
Consequences of Industrialization
  • Shifts in global manufacturing diminished the share of Middle Eastern and Asian countries.
      - For example, India faced decline in traditional manufacturing sectors.
Technological Advances
  • The steam engine, advanced by James Watt, revolutionized manufacturing by enabling increased production through fossil fuels, especially coal.
Railroads and Transportation
  • Railroads, pioneered in Britain around 1830, enabled vast shipping networks and allowed mass movement of people across regions.
The Second Industrial Revolution
  • New advancements from 1850 included:
      - Large-scale steel and chemical production.
      - Utilization of oil and electricity as power sources.

Role of Government in Industrialization

  • Some states promoted state-guided initiatives, such as:
      - Japan’s Meiji Restoration, where modernization efforts led to rapid industrial growth against the West