Parties and Party Systems

Political parties are fundamental to modern politics but are a relatively recent invention, emerging in the early nineteenth century.
They act as a vital link between the state and civil society.
Parties differ in organizational structure, ideological orientation, and roles within the political system.
They are viewed both as tools of democracy and as sources of tyranny and repression.
The party system, defined by the relationships between parties and the number of parties, significantly influences their impact. One-party systems differ greatly from competitive systems.
Parties have faced criticism for failing to address new aspirations and pressing problems in modern societies.

Key Issues

What is a political party, and how can parties be classified?
What are the key functions of political parties?
How are parties organized, and where is power located within them?
What kinds of party system are there?
How does the party system shape the broader political process?
Are parties in decline, and is this decline terminal?

Party Politics

Political parties are present in most countries and political systems.
They vary from authoritarian to democratic and pursue power through elections or revolution.
The development of parties and party systems was seen as a sign of political modernization.
By the late 1950s, 80% of the world’s states were ruled by political parties.
A decline occurred in the 1960s and 1970s due to military rule in the developing world, with parties accused of causing division and failing to solve poverty and ethnic rivalry.
Democratization since the 1980s has led to a resurgence of parties in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and the establishment of competitive party systems in former communist states.
Parties are structures of mass politics that arose with representative government and expanded voting rights in the nineteenth century.
Before this, 'factions' or 'parties' were simply groups of like-minded politicians around a key leader or family.
Edmund Burke described a party as 'a body of men united upon some particular principle upon which they all agree'.
Modern parties emerged first in the USA, with the Federalist Party during the 1800 election.
Conservative and liberal parties often began as legislative factions, later developing extra-parliamentary machinery to appeal to a wider electorate.
Socialist parties and those representing religious, ethnic, and language groups originated as social movements or interest groups, evolving into parliamentary parties.
By the twentieth century, parties and party systems reflected social cleavages within society.

Types of Party

Political parties can be classified as:
- Cadre and mass parties
- Representative and integrative parties
- Constitutional and revolutionary parties
- Left-wing and right-wing parties
A political party is defined as a group organized to win government power, typically with these characteristics:
- Aim to exercise government power by winning political office.
- Organized bodies with formal membership.
- Broad issue focus, addressing major areas of government policy.
- United by shared political preferences and ideological identity.

Cadre vs. Mass Parties

Cadre parties: Originally parties of notables with informal leadership, now refers to parties with trained, committed members providing ideological leadership.
- Examples include the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), Nazi Party, and Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
- Rely on a politically active elite, often with strict membership criteria, though careerism can be a motive for joining.
Mass parties: Emphasize broad membership and a wide electoral base.
- Early examples were European socialist parties like the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the UK Labour Party.
- Focus on recruitment and organization over ideology and political conviction.
- Membership entails general agreement about principles and goals, with limited participation from most members.
Catch-all parties: Reduce ideological baggage to appeal to the largest number of voters.
- Examples include the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) in Germany, and the Republicans and Democrats in the USA.
- Modern de-ideologized socialist parties like the German Social Democrats and the Labour Party in the UK also fit this description.
- Emphasize leadership and unity, building broad coalitions rather than relying on a particular social class.

Representative vs. Integrative Parties

Representative parties: Prioritize securing votes in elections, reflecting public opinion rather than shaping it.
- Adopt a catch-all strategy, emphasizing pragmatism and market research.
Integrative parties: Adopt proactive strategies to mobilize, educate, and inspire the masses.
- May include ideologically disciplined cadre parties and mass parties with mobilizing tendencies.
- Socialist parties aimed to win over the electorate to beliefs in public ownership, full employment, and social welfare.
- The UK Conservatives under Margaret Thatcher also adopted a mobilizing strategy based on cutting taxes, encouraging enterprise, and promoting individual responsibility.
Faction: A section or group within a larger formation, usually a political party, compatible with the host party's aims. Factionalism refers to the proliferation or bitterness of factional rivalry.

Constitutional vs. Revolutionary Parties

Constitutional parties: Acknowledge the rights of other parties and operate within a framework of rules and constraints.
- Recognize a division between the party and the state, respecting the independence of state institutions.
- Respect the rules of electoral competition and the possibility of being voted out of power.
- Mainstream parties in liberal democracies have a constitutional character.
Revolutionary parties: Aim to seize power and overthrow the existing constitutional structure.
- Employ tactics ranging from insurrection to quasi-legal methods.
- May be formally banned as 'extremist' or 'anti-democratic'.
- When in power, they suppress rival parties and establish a permanent relationship with the state machinery, creating a fused 'party-state' apparatus.

Left-Wing vs. Right-Wing Parties

Left-wing parties: (progressive, socialist, and communist) are committed to change, either social reform or economic transformation.
- Traditionally draw support from the poor and disadvantaged, particularly the working classes in urban societies.
Right-wing parties: (conservative and fascist) generally uphold the existing social order.
- Supporters usually include business interests and the materially contented middle classes.
The left-right divide is often simplistic and misleading, as both sides are divided along reformist/revolutionary and constitutional/insurrectionary lines.
Electoral competition blurs ideological identities.
Definitions of left and right change over time and differ across political systems.
The shift away from class polarities and the emergence of new issues like the environment and feminism have rendered the conventional ideas of left and right outdated.

The Left/Right Divide

The left–right political spectrum describes political ideas and beliefs, summarizing the ideological positions of politicians, parties and movements, originating from the French Revolution.
Narrow sense: Linear political spectrum summarizes attitudes to the economy and the role of the state.
- Left-wing views support intervention and collectivism.
- Right-wing views favor the market and individualism.
Alternative Spectrum: Horseshoe-shaped political spectrum highlights totalitarian tendencies of both fascism and communism.
Two-dimensional spectrum: Compensates for inconsistencies by adding a vertical authoritarian–libertarian one, disentangling economic organization from civil liberty.

Functions of Parties

Political parties have a central function of filling political office, but their impact is broader and more complex.
Constitutional parties in competitive systems are seen as bastions of democracy, while regime parties are viewed as instruments of manipulation.
General functions of parties include:
- Representation
- Elite formation and recruitment
- Goal formulation
- Interest articulation and aggregation
- Socialization and mobilization
- Organization of government

Representation

Often seen as the primary function, referring to the capacity to respond to and articulate the views of members and voters.
In systems theory, parties are 'inputting' devices ensuring government heeds the needs of society.
Rational-choice theorists see politicians as entrepreneurs seeking votes, with power residing in voters.
Critics argue that parties shape public opinion, voters are not always well-informed, and electoral choice is often narrow.
Anti-party party: Parties that set out to subvert traditional party politics by rejecting parliamentary compromise and emphasizing popular mobilization.

Elite Formation and Recruitment

Parties provide states with political leaders, either from powerful politicians or through party posts.
Politicians gain skills, knowledge, and experience through party involvement.
The control that parties exert over government offices can be criticized for limiting the pool of talent.
The use of primary elections in the USA weakens party control over candidate selection.

Goal Formulation

Parties formulate programs of government to attract popular support, serving as a major source of policy initiation.
Parties formulate coherent sets of policy options, giving the electorate a choice among realistic goals.
Parliamentary systems allow parties to claim a mandate to implement policies if elected.
The tendency towards de-ideologized catch-all parties and the emphasis on personality over policies has reduced party impact on policy formulation.
Policy implementation is typically carried out by bureaucracies, except in one-party systems.

Interest Articulation and Aggregation

Parties helps to articulate and aggregate the various interests found in society
Parties often develop as vehicles through which business, labor, religious, ethnic or other groups advance or defend their various interests
National parties articulate the demands of a multitude of groups, aggregate these interests by drawing them together into a coherent whole, balancing competing interests against each other
Constitutional parties are forced to do this by the pressures of electoral competition, but even monopolistic parties articulate and aggregate interests through their close re lation ship with the state and the economy, especially in centrally planned systems
However, not even in competitive party systems are all interests articulated, those of the poor being most vulnerable to exclusion.

Socialization and Mobilization

Parties are important agents of political education and socialization through internal debate, discussion, campaigning and electoral competition
Issues that parties choose to focus on help to set the political agenda, and the values and attitudes that they articulate become part of the larger polit-ical culture.
Monopolistic parties propogate an ‘official’ ideology (be it Marxism–Leninism, National Socialism, or simply the ideas of a charismatic leader), playing a signifcant role in encouraging groups to play by the rules of the democratic game, thus mobilizing support for the regime itself.
The emergence of socialist parties in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was an important means of integrating the working class into industrial society.
Nevertheless, the capacity of parties to mobilize and socialize has been brought into doubt by evidence in many countries of partisan dealignment and growing disenchantment with conventional pro-system parties.
The problem that parties have is that, to some extent, they themselves are socialized (some would say corrupted) by the experience of government, making them, it appears, less effective in engaging partisan sympathies and attracting emotional attachments.

Organization of Government

Complex modern societies would be ungovernable in the absence of political parties
In the first place, parties help with the formation of governments and give governments a degree of stability and coherence.
Parties facilitate cooperation between the assembly and the executive and provide a vital source of opposition and criticism, both inside and outside government

Debate: Do Parties Breed Discord and Constrain Political Debate?

Sacrificing Personal Conscience

Parties are collective entities, requiring unity and cohesion, which comes at the price of personal conscience
Parties 'think for' their members, whether through discipline and fear of punishment or through emotional or ideological attachment.

Disharmony and Adversarialism

Party politics breed a tribal mentality, exaggerating flaws of other parties and denying those of one's own.
Parties promote a one-sided view, distorting political issues and debates for party advantage.

Domination by the Cunning and Ambitious

Parties concentrate political power, with elite rule reflecting the need for 'foot soldiers' who obey and follow.
Those who advance within the party are likely to be 'cunning, ambitious and unprincipled men'.

Forums of Debate

Parties are vibrant and multifarious, with rival factions and tendencies ensuring unending debate.
Parties provide their members with a political education, strengthening their knowledge and skills and making them more engaged citizens, and providing an important vehicle for the aspect of personal self-development.

Engaging the People

Parties provide a channel of communication through which political leaders both mobilize citizens and respond to their needs and concerns.
The need to engage with the ideas and interests of the people generates pressure within parties to permit, even encourage, internal debate and argument among their members, rather than uncritical obedience.

Cross-Party Interaction

Bipartisanship creates a bias in favour of consensus-building and alliances amongst parties.
Coalition governments resolve conflicts through cross-party dialogue and in presidential systems through the phenomenon of cohabitation

Organization of Government

Parties help with the formation of governments, providing stability and cohesion.
They facilitate cooperation between the assembly and the executive.
Parties offer a source of opposition and criticism, ensuring government policy is scrutinized.

Party Organization: Where Does Power Lie?

The organization and structure of parties provide clues about the distribution of power within society.
Mosei Ostrogorski (1902) argued that individual interests lost out to the party machine.
Robert Michels' 'iron law of oligarchy' suggests organization leads to oligarchy.
Critics point out that Michels' observations are generalizations based on a single party, with questionable psychological theories, and that party elites are often faction-ridden.
Attempts have been made to strengthen democratic features of parties through reform.
Party democracy: A form of popular rule that operates through the agency of a party
- In the first model (intraparty democracy), parties are democratic agents, in that power within them is widely and evenly dispersed
- In the second model, democracy dictates that policy-making power should be concentrated in the hands of party members who are elected and, therefore, publicly accountable

US Parties

US parties are loose coalitions held together by presidential elections, decentralized and non-programmic.
Following protests at the 1968 Democratic convention, a reform movement weakened local party leaders.
Nominating primaries and caucuses attracted issue and candidate activists, leading to more ideological candidates.
Concerns that open structures could result in unelectable candidates led to strengthening committee structures.
This is seen as providing electoral support for candidates, rather than party-focused elections.
The existence of factions is as important as formal organization in determining the location of power within a party.
Machine politics: A style of politics in which party ‘bosses’ control a mass organization through patronage and the distribution of favours.
Caucus: A meeting of party members held to nominate election candidates, or to discuss legislative proposals in advance of formal proceedings.

Factionalism and Ideological Direction

Factionalism is often linked to the weight that parties place on political ideas and ideological direction.
Pragmatic right-wing parties balance rival tendencies, while ideological left-wing parties deal with open disagreement and institutionalized rivalry.

Secure Hold on Power

Factionalism depends on whether parties have a secure hold on power.
Monopolistic communist parties keep factionalism at bay through strict discipline.
'Dominant' parties such as the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) in Japan and the Italian Christian Democratic Party (DC) are deeply factional.

The Iron Law of Oligarchy

Oligarchy is government or domination by the few.
The 'iron law of oligarchy', formulated by Robert Michels, suggests that there is an inevitable tendency for political organizations to be oligarchic.
Arguments supporting the law:
- Elite groups result from the need for specialization.
- Leaders form cohesive groups to remain in power.
- Rank-and-file members tend to be apathetic.

Party Systems

A party system is a network of relationships structuring how political systems work.
Duverger distinguished between 'one-party', 'two-party', and 'multiparty' systems.
Sartori emphasized the 'relevance' of parties in forming governments and their electoral/legislative strength.
The distinction between 'major' and 'minor' parties is often made.
Party systems can be characterized by cooperation/consensus or conflict/polarization, linked to ideology and history.
The mere presence of parties does not guarantee a party system, which needs stability and order.
Major party systems include:
- One-party systems
- Two-party systems
- Dominant-party systems
- Multiparty systems
Democratic centralism: The Leninist principle of party organization, based on a supposed balance between freedom of discussion and strict unity of action.
Party system: A relatively stable network of relationships between parties that is structured by their number, size and ideological orientation.

One-Party Systems

The term 'one-party system' can be contradictory but distinguishes systems where a single party monopolizes power.
Monopolistic parties function as permanent governments with an entrenched relationship with the state machine, classified as 'one-party states'.
Two types of one-party system:
- State socialist regimes where communist parties control institutions and aspects of society.
  - Subject to ideological discipline and structured internal organizations.
  - Examples: Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the CPSU.
  - Apparatchiki run the party apparatus, supervising state and social institutions.
  - Nomenklatura system involves vetted appointments.
  - Justified by the claim that the party acts as the 'vanguard of the proletariat'.
- Anticolonial nationalism and state consolidation in the developing world.
  - Parties develop out of independence movements.
  - Examples: Ghana, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe.
  - Often built around a charismatic leader.
  - Monopolistic position entrenches authoritarianism and corruption.

Two-Party Systems

A two-party system is duopolistic, dominated by two 'major' parties with roughly equal chances of winning power.
Three criteria:
- Only two parties have sufficient strength to win government power.
- The larger party can rule alone, the other providing opposition.
- Power alternates between these parties.
Examples: UK and the USA are the most frequently cited, though archetypal examples are rare.
Party government is supposedly characterized by stability, choice and accountability via rival programmes and alternative governments.
Critics argue that two-party systems can deliver adversarial politics, restrict electoral/ideological choice, and deliver irresponsible promises to be elected.
Threshold: A minimum level of electoral support needed for a party to be eligible to win seats.

Dominant-Party Systems

Competitive systems where a single party enjoys prolonged periods in power.
Classic example: Japan's Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), in power for 54 years until 2009.
Other examples: Congress Party in India, African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa.
Political focus shifts from competition between parties to factional conflict within the dominant party.
Criticized for eroding the distinction between state and party, engendering complacency and corruption, and fostering weak opposition.

Multiparty Systems

Competition among more than two parties, reducing the chances of single-party government and increasing the likelihood of coalitions.
In such systems the likelihood of coalition government is a key characteristic.
Sartori distinguished between 'moderate' and 'polarized' pluralist systems.
Moderate pluralism exists where ideological differences are slight and coalitions are favored.
Polarized pluralism exists when major parties are separated by marked ideological differences.
The strength of multiparty systems is biased in favor of debate, conciliation and compromise.
The principal criticisms of multiparty systems relate to the pitfalls and difficulties of coalition formation.
Coalition: A grouping of rival political actors brought together either through the perception of a common threat, or through a recognition that their goals cannot be achieved by working separately
Electoral coalitions are alliances through which parties agree not to compete against one another, with a view to maximizing their representation.
Legislative coalitions are agreements between two or more parties to support a particular bill or programme.
Governing coalitions are formal agreements between two or more parties that involve a cross-party distribution of ministerial portfolios.
A ‘grand coalition’ or ‘national government’ comprises all major parties.

Decline of Parties?

Concerns stem from their decline as agents of representation and links between government and people.
Evidence includes declining membership, partisanship and voter turnout, and the rise of 'antipolitics'.
One explanation is that parties are seen as bureaucratized machines, with inactive members and tarnished links to government.
An alternative explanation is that complex societies are increasingly difficult to govern.
A final explanation is that social identities and traditional loyalties have faded, with issues such as gender equality and environmentalism requiring new political formations.

Summary

A political party is a group organized to win government power, usually with ideological cohesion. Classifications include cadre/mass, representative/integrative, constitutional/revolutionary, and left-wing/right-wing.
Parties function as mechanisms of representation, forming political elites, formulating social goals, articulating interests, mobilizing voters, and organizing government.
Party organization influences power distribution within society. Party democracy can be promoted by dispersing power or concentrating it in elected members. Oligarchic tendencies can arise due to organization or the need for party unity.
A party system is a network of relationships through which parties interact. One-party systems involve a 'ruling' party, two-party systems alternate power between two 'major' parties, dominant-party systems see prolonged power for one party, and multiparty systems involve coalition government.
Party systems shape the political process by influencing choice, cohesion, stability, and the relationship between the executive and assembly.
Evidence of a crisis in party politics includes declining membership and the rise of 'antiparty' groups, explained by the perception that parties are tainted by power and disillusionment caused by the inability of governments to deliver on their promises.