Midterm Review Unit 1-5
Unit 1
Water
water (H2O) - polar, O negative & H positive
traits affect its adhesion, cohesion, surface tension, high specific heat, low density when frozen, universal solvent
adhesion of the water to cell walls by hydrogen bonds helps resist the downward pull of gravity (ability to stick to the walls), cohesion due to hydrogen bonds between water molecules helps hold together the column of water within the cells (ability to attach to each other)
provides insulation for aquatic animals when the top surface of a body of water is frozen
Elements of Life
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous
Carbon Chemistry
carbon - acts as the backbone for many molecules, can create 4 covalent bonds
isomers - break down into structural & geometric isomers
structural - differ in covalent partners
cis-trans isomers - differ in arrangement about a double bond
cis - the X groups are on the same side
trans - the X groups are on opposite sides
enantiomers - differ in spatial arrangement around an asymmetric carbon, resulting in molecules that are mirror images, like left and right hands
Structure and Properties of Macromolecules & Nucleic Acids
Creating Polymers
polymerization reactions - the creation of polymers
dehydration synthesis - removes a water molecule, forming a new bond, H2O as a byproduct
hydrolysis - adds a water molecule, breaking a bond
Carbohydrates
monomer - monosaccharides
polymer - polysaccharides
C6H12O6 - glucose
plant
starch - storage, alpha glucose monomers
cellulose - structural polysaccharides
animal
glycogen - storage, beta glucose monomers
Lipids
no monomers/polymers, do not elongate, nonpolar
fats/oils
glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid chains
saturated - straight, no double bonds
unsaturated - bent, double bonds present
phospholipids
negative phosphate head - dissolve in water, hydrophillic
lipid tails - do not dissolve in water, hydrophobic
Proteins
monomers - amino acids
polymer - polypeptides, form peptide bonds in between amino acids
amino acid - R group differentiates each amino acid, folds the long strand into a 3-D structure
primary structure - sequence of amino acids
secondary structure - alpha helices or beta pleated sheets
tertiary structure - 3-D shape stabilized by interactions between side chains
quaternary structure - association of multiple polypeptides, forming a function protein
Nucleic Acids
monomer - nucleotides (sugar/deoxyribose, nitrogenous base, phosphate group)
DNA - ATCG, doesn’t have a second Oxygen, anti parallel double helix
RNA - GUAC, single stranded
Unit 2 Cell Structure and Function
plant cells - have cell wall, chloroplasts
animal cells -
Cell Membrane Structure
fluid mosaic model - phospholippids arent the only thing that made up the plasma membrane
integreated proteins
peripheral proteins
glycoproteins
glycolipids - unsaturated (enhance fluidity) v. saturated tails (packed tighter so more rigid)
cholesterol - inhibit the cells from being too fluid or too hard
does not let charged or polar things through membrane
channel proteins - closed or open
diffusion - high concentration to low
facilitated diffusion - allows a channel or carrier protein so it can move from high to low
active transport - low to high
pumps - uses ATP to drive the process
aquaporins - channel proteins specific to water
osmosis - watre moving to low to high solute concentration, moves water to the opposite direction of solutes if possible
will move to lower concentration
water moves to dilute something
hypotonic - lower solute concentration; water rushes into the cell leading to lyses or being turgid, cell wall can withstand pressure
isotonic - net movement of water being equal in and out
hypertonic - more solute on the outside; water is moving from the outside, shriveling the cell
eukaryotic cells - organelles, carry out multiple enyzymatic processes
Unit 3 Enzymes, Photosynthesis, Cell Respiration
enzymes - proteins that catalyst chemical reactions
has a structure that combines substrates and changes it to reduce the energy required to go under chemical change
affected by environmental factors: pH, temperature—denaturation, salinity
allosteric regulation - enzymes turned on or off
photosynthesis - energy from sunlight harnessed to produce glucose
plants absorb lights from pigment chlorophyll, can make electrons excited by using photons from the sunlight (blues and reds, transmitting green)
photosystems - harnesses energy of exciting electrons to pump hydrogen ions or protons from stroma into the thylakoids, creating a concentration gradient
electron cn only leave from atp synthase, relieving the gradient by creating atp
photosystem I - electrons passed onto an electron acceptor called NADPH
loss of electrons replenished by water
atp and nadph prodced by light reactions i sused in calvin cycle
calvin cycle -
three cycles
carbon fization - rubp and c molecule combined trhough enxyme rubisco which forms a 6 crbon molcule which splits into 3 pg
reduction - reduced by nadph
regeneration - made into rubp
cell respiration - process of breaking down sugar
1 glycolygsis
— glucose is brone into two halfs, called pyruvates, need to invest atp
— netgain of 2 atp
2 pyruvvate oxidation
— pyruvate put in mitochondria and loses co2
electrons released so frmation of nadh molecule
krebs cycle
2 6 carbon acid releases wo co2
releases 6 nadh, 2 fadh2, 4 atp
oxidative phosporylation
electrons removed by o2, final e- acceptor which is joined by 2 h atoms to form water
atp is formed
Unit 4
3 main steps to cell signal
reception - signaling molecule attaches to receptor, knocking the gtp
tranduction - gtp moves
response - gtp hits cellular response/activated enzyme
cell cycle
interphase
g1 - dna rows
s - dpublicate dna
g2 - prepare for mitotic phase
mitotic phase
prophase - condensation of dna, spindle fibers form to segreegate chromosomes
metaphase - chromosomes lined up in a line
anaphase - chromatids separate
telophase & telokinesis - chromosomes recondense and separate
Unit 5 Hereditary
meisosis
diploid - paired chromosome set
23 chromosomes from each gamete, 46 chromosomes in a person
gametes - haploid, one half of genetic blah
meiosis 1
prophase 1 - nuclear envelope disintegrating, spindle fibers, etc., hoomologous chromosomes pair up creating corssing voer, making hybrid chromatids comibing mom and dads dna
metaphase 1 - paired chromosomes align randomly, some with dads chromosomes on top or botom and same with mom
anaphose 1 - homologous pairs seprating
meisosis 2
anaphase 2 - sister chromatids separating
mendelian genetics
gene - region of dna that encodes a part or whole of a protein, codes a particular charaacter
diploid organisms have two copies of each gene
alleles - variants of genes
dominance - some alleles can mask or overshadow another allele
phenotype - an orgnaisms phsyicall genes expression
genotype - how we symboli represent an organisms genetic components
homozygous dominant
heterozygous
homozzygous recessive
AAxaa
P0 cross
AaxAa
F1 cross
Test cross
Aaxaa
dihhybride = AaBb, 9;3:3:1
9 - dominant traits 3 - has dominant traits but other is recessive, 1 recessive for both
law of segregration - an individuals with 2 alleles will only pass one of two allels into the next generation
law of dominance - certain genes can comppltely mask the recessive alleles
law of independent assortment - produces 4 possible combination with equal probabiblity
non mendelian genetics
incomplete dominance - two alleles that don’t react but rather show a blend
co-dominance - penetrance of both alleles
epistatis - one gene affects the expression of another gene
polygenic inheritance - mutiples genes affect a isngle trait ex. height, skin tone
genes and environment factors -
pedigrees -
autosomal recessive -
automial dominanatn
x linked
mitochondrial