Liberalism and Nationalism in Germany 1815–1871 (copy) (copy)

Geopolitical Context (1815): After the chaotic Napoleonic Wars, Central Europe was not a united country but a mix of different states within the German Confederation, which had 39 member states, each with their own identity and government.

The Holy Roman Empire Background: Before the Napoleonic Wars, the area was under the loose control of the Holy Roman Empire, a collection of different regions recognized by the Austrian Emperor. The Empire fell apart in 1806 because of Napoleon's actions, leading to a complicated reorganization of political areas.

The Confederation of the Rhine: In 1806, Napoleon reorganized the western German states into the Confederation of the Rhine, encouraging ideas of reason and uniform laws. This replaced many local laws with the French legal system called the Code Napoléon, paving the way for more uniform laws across the region.

Cultural Reaction and Romanticism: In response to the perceived coldness of French ideas, German thinkers began to promote a unique cultural identity based on shared feelings and traditions.
   - J.G. Herder: A key figure in this shift, Herder advocated for the idea of Volksgeist, which means that a nation’s essence comes from its collective spirit shaped by language, traditions, and shared history.
   - National Pride: Events like Prussia’s military changes after the wars and the important win at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 symbolized the rise of national awareness, highlighted by the construction of a 91-meter-high memorial that honored the growing German identity.

THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND THE METTERNICH SYSTEM

Post-War Settlement (September 1814): After the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna gathered a group of European powers to redraw the continent’s borders. The main participants were Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Russia, with France taking part but having little influence.

Ideological Conflict: The congress highlighted a major clash of ideas as conservative leaders worked to suppress the rise of liberalism and nationalism that had gained visibility during revolutionary movements.

Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773–1859):
   - Role: Metternich was the Austrian foreign minister (1809–1848) and then chancellor (1821–1848). He played a key role in establishing a conservative order in Europe.
   - Beliefs: He denounced freedom and equality as creating chaos in society. He saw the multi-national Austrian Empire, home to 25 million people across 647,000 km², as a delicate structure susceptible to nationalism.
   - The Metternich System: His method focused on keeping absolute monarchy secure through strict measures, including heavy censorship of the press and a network of spies. Troops were stationed far from local communities to prevent nationalist uprisings, causing more tension among nationalist groups.

Nature of the Confederation (Bund):
   - Structure: The Confederation was made up of 39 states under Austrian control, including large kingdoms like Bavaria and smaller city-states like Hamburg.
   - The Diet: An assembly of ambassadors called the Diet met in Frankfurt, always led by Austria, which held veto power over changes proposed by member states.
   - Internal Failures: The Confederation faced problems like a lack of a unified civil service and economic structure, and failed attempts to create a federal defense force due to disagreements over command and spending.

LIBERALISM, NATIONALISM, AND THE MIDDLE CLASS

Societal Changes: The ideas of liberalism and nationalism mainly came from the educated middle class, especially the Besitzbürgertum (property-owning bourgeoisie) and the Bildungsbürgertum (intellectual bourgeoisie).
   - Business Class: This group was mainly found in cities like those in the Rhineland and trading ports like Hamburg and included merchants and small-scale entrepreneurs.
   - Education: University enrollment doubled from 1817 to 1831, showing greater emphasis on education and professional growth among the middle class.

Liberal Objectives:
   - Supporters of liberalism wanted representative assemblies elected by property owners and constitutional monarchies that aligned with the interests of the people.
   - Key goals included ensuring civil liberties, such as freedom of speech and the right to fair trials.
   - Economic Liberalism: They advocated for free market policies, the removal of internal tariffs, and fostering open market competition.

Nationalist Support: The nationalist sentiment was mainly backed by educated professionals and student groups known as Burschenschaften that focused on discussions about national identity. However, most of the general population consisted of peasants with localized loyalties and little interest in more abstract national ideas, complicated further by differing religions wherein southern and western regions primarily practiced Catholicism, while northern areas mainly identified with Protestantism.

CONSERVATIVE REPRESSION AND THE 1830s

The Carlsbad Decrees (1819): These laws were introduced in response to the assassination of the liberal playwright August von Kotzebue by a student, aiming to stamp out radical ideas.
   - Universities: These measures led to the positioning of special commissioners in universities, who expelled liberal professors to control ideological oversight.
   - Censorship: An investigative body was established in Mainz to dismantle radical political organizations, stifling free expression.

The 1830 Impact: The revolution in Paris resulted in the ousting of Charles X, leading to constitutional changes in Saxony, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and Brunswick, mirroring the extensive liberal upheaval happening across Europe.

Hambach Festival (1832): This large demonstration in Bavaria saw participants advocating for national dignity and civil rights.
   - Consequences: In response, Metternich introduced the Six Articles in June 1832 and the Ten Articles in July 1832, prohibiting political gatherings and the display of student association colors.

Göttingen Seven (1837): A group of seven professors, including the well-known Grimm brothers, were dismissed for opposing the dissolution of the Hanoverian constitution, demonstrating the friction between conservative governance and academic freedom.

THE ZOLLVEREIN AND PRUSSIA'S ECONOMIC LEADERSHIP

Economic Growth: By the late 1840s, rising railway construction sparked major growth in the coal and iron industries, although a large part (70%) of the population still depended on farming.

Trade Barriers: Various internal customs procedures obstructed economic growth, forcing goods to cross multiple regional borders, each imposing taxes and additional paperwork.

The Zollverein (1834): This customs union, organized by Prussia, started with 18 states but eventually expanded to 25, totaling a population of 26 million.
   - Mechanism: The Zollverein eliminated internal trade barriers, redistributing income among member states based on population, and standardizing weights, measures, and currency to improve economic interactions.

Austrian Exclusion: Austria’s decision to stay outside of the Zollverein was aimed at shielding its own industries from competition while unintentionally leading to a strategic mistake that weakened its influence over German economic matters.

Nationalist Debate: The discussion surrounding German unification presented two opposing views:
   - Grossdeutschland: Called for comprehensive unification of all German-speaking people, including Austria.
   - Kleindeutschland: Advocated for a more realistic approach, excluding Austria, to allow Prussia to take the lead in the unified state.

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848–49

Social/Economic Causes: The revolutions arose from various elements:
   - Agricultural disasters in 1846 and 1847 led to food shortages.
   - A significant population increase: Prussia's population grew from 10.3 million in 1820 to 14.9 million by 1840, while all of Germany increased from 26.1 million to 32.6 million in the same time period.
   - Economic downturns in the textile industry and rising food prices fueled dissatisfaction in cities.

The Outbreak (March 1848):
   - In Baden, reforms instigated by Grand Duke Leopold led to free press and trial by jury.
   - In Bavaria, King Ludwig I abdicated due to unrest influenced by actress Lola Montez.
   - The Vorparlament gathered in Frankfurt to prepare a larger national assembly focusing on German interests.

Revolution in Prussia:
 

• Under King Friedrich Wilhelm IV (1795–1861), protests in Berlin called for reforms. The King tried to calm dissent by adopting revolutionary clothing and declaring Prussia would ‘merge in Germany,’ suggesting a potential move toward unification.

The Frankfurt Parliament (May 1848 – June 1849):
   - Known as the ‘Professors' Parliament,’ it primarily involved lawyers (200) and academics (49), with very little representation from the working class: just one peasant and four artisans.
   - Weaknesses: Marked by slow decision-making, lacking military backing, and depending on current monarchs for legitimacy.
   - Schleswig-Holstein Crisis: The parliament tried to authorize military engagement with Denmark but faced a setback when Prussia accepted a truce in August 1848 without consulting parliament, revealing its lack of real power.
   - Failure: The moment of defeat came in April 1849 when Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected the offered imperial crown, calling it a ‘crown of mud and wood,’ thereby hindering further unification.

PRUSSIA'S RECOVERY AND THE 1850s

The Humiliation of Olmütz (November 1850): Prussia's hopes for the Erfurt Union were dashed by Felix Schwarzenberg's actions, forcing Prussia to pull back and rejoin the older Confederation, marking a setback for their strategic goals.

Crimean War (1854–56): In this conflict, Austria’s failure to ally with Russia led to a growing separation between them, disrupting the traditional conservative alliance, while Prussia remained neutral, maintaining good relations with both sides.

Manteuffel's Reforms: Otto von Manteuffel, as Minister-President from 1850 to 1858, initiated various social programs, including low-interest loans for farmers to ease potential revolutionary threats while also promoting private sector growth, especially in coal and iron industries.

Economic Indicators ($1850$ vs. $1870$):
   - Railways: Prussia’s railway lengths increased from 5,586 km to 18,876 km, highlighting significant infrastructure development.
   - Railways in Austria: During the same period, Austria’s railway length grew from 1,579 km to 9,589 km but remained behind Prussian progress.
   - Prussia’s Coal Output ($1850–1865$): Increased from 1,961,000 tonnes to 8,526,000 tonnes, showing industrial growth in this period.

THE RISE OF BISMARCK

Constitutional Crisis (1862): Wilhelm I's desire to strengthen the army caused disputes with liberal members of the Landtag who opposed funding for military expansion.

Appointment: In September 1862, Otto von Bismarck was named Minister-President to help solve the political deadlock.

Political Philosophy: Bismarck, who believed in realism and practicality, famously declared that significant political changes are not achieved through majority rule but through power, as expressed in his 'Blood and Iron' speech.

Methods: He operated outside parliamentary rules, illegally collected taxes, and enforced press censorship to stifle dissent, establishing a powerful executive presence.

THE WARS OF UNIFICATION

War with Denmark (1864): The conflict over Schleswig-Holstein saw Prussia and Austria unite against Denmark at Düppel, leading to the Gastein Convention (1865) that granted Schleswig to Prussia and Holstein to Austria, showcasing effective military and diplomatic collaboration.

Austro-Prussian War (1866):
   - Bismarck effectively isolated Austria diplomatically with support from Napoleon III, assuring neutral alliances, particularly with Italy.
   - Königgrätz (Sadowa): This crucial battle demonstrated Prussian military strength, using the Dreyse needle gun’s quick-firing capability (seven shots per minute) against Austria’s slower weapons.
   - Treaty of Prague: Resulted in moderate terms, avoiding long-term animosity with Austria and leading to the formation of the North German Confederation, thus aligning more German states under Prussian control.

Franco-Prussian War (1870–71):

 - The Ems Telegram incident illustrated Bismarck’s strategy of editing communications to provoke France, garnering public support for the war.
   - Prussian Advantages: The conflict utilized Prussian military efficiency under Helmuth von Moltke and advanced artillery technology from Krupp’s factories to secure decisive victories.
   - Sedan (Sept 1870): The capture of Napoleon III marked a significant event, ultimately leading to a long siege on Paris.
   - Outcome: France’s defeat resulted in territorial losses including Alsace and northern Lorraine, plus reparations of 5 billion francs, thus altering the power dynamics in Europe.

THE GERMAN EMPIRE (1871)

Proclamation: On January 18, 1871, Wilhelm I was officially declared the German Emperor (Kaiser) in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, marking an important event in German unification.

Constitution:
   - A federal structure (Fürstenbund) was created where the individual princes kept certain powers alongside a Bundesrat (Federal Council) in which Prussia held a dominating 17 of 43 votes, later expanded to 58, needing only 14 for a veto.
   - The Reichstag was elected by universal male suffrage, but had no authority over military spending, which made up 90% of the national budget—key for understanding the power balance in the new empire.
   - Bismarck’s position as Imperial Chancellor meant he answered only to the Kaiser, concentrating power in the executive branch while downplaying legislative authority.

QUESTIONS & DISCUSSION

Historical Source Utility: When looking at images of delegates at the Congress of Vienna, historians stress the need to consider the creator's biases, the timing of creation, and whether the piece is meant to relay factual information or carry a political critique.

Abstract Ideas vs. Class: The investigation of how liberalism and nationalism inspired people shows that involvement with these ideas was greatly influenced by socio-economic status and education, resulting in differing impacts across various social layers.

Prussia vs. Austria Strengths: Data from Table 3.3 shows that by 1870, Prussia had a higher percentage of labor engaged in manufacturing (28% compared to Austria's 13.1%) and a greater per capita Gross National Product ($426 against Austria's $305), highlighting Prussia's growing economic strength.

Source Comparison (Wilhelm I vs. Bismarck Memoirs): When comparing the accounts from King Wilhelm I, who framed the 1870 war as defensive, claiming a ‘sword forced into our hand,’ with Bismarck's later reflections that glorified his manipulation of the Ems Telegram, a difference between royal and Bismarck's self-promoting views emerges, essential for understanding the complexities of historical memory in state affairs.