Ancient Near East Chapter 2 Study Notes

Learning objectives

  • 2a Identify the visual hallmarks of early Mesopotamian, Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Persian art for formal, technical, and expressive qualities.
  • 2b Interpret the meaning of works of early Mesopotamian, Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Persian art based on their themes, subjects, and symbols.
  • 2c Relate early Mesopotamian, Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Persian artists and art to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.
  • 2d Apply the vocabulary and concepts used to discuss ancient Near Eastern art, artists, and art history.
  • 2e Interpret ancient Near Eastern art using appropriate art historical methods, such as observation, comparison, and inductive reasoning.
  • 2f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of ancient Near Eastern art.

Map and geography (Map 2-1) – The Ancient Near East

  • Ancient Mesopotamia lies in the Fertile Crescent between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers; Nile River in Egypt is a parallel reference point.
  • Major cultural centers and regions include Sumer, Akkad, Ur, Lagash, Babylon, Assyria, Elam, Hittite plains, Persis (Persia).
  • Key cities/regions mentioned: Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Girsu, Nippur, Nineveh, Kalhu (Nimrud), Dur Sharrukin (Khorsabad), Susa, Persepolis, Mausolea of the Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid periods.
  • The map situates Mesopotamia within the broader Near Eastern landscape, including Cyprus, Anatolia, Egypt, the Persian Gulf, and the Caspian/Black Seas for comparative context.

Early Mesopotamia (overview)

  • Timeline context: development of agriculture in the sixth or fifth millennium BCE; city-states emerge between 4000 and 3000 BCE.
  • Social structure: stratified by skills beyond basic farming; social hierarchies tied to craft specialization and religious roles.
  • Religion: organized religion and sacred sites/rituals central to social life.
  • Geography as a vulnerability: wealth and resources in Mesopotamia, with limited natural defenses, fostered political upheaval and shifting power.

Sumer (1 of 9)

  • Writing and record-keeping:
    • Sumerians contributed a form of writing used for accounting; writing began as simple pictographs on wet clay using a pointed stylus.
    • This system is called cuneiform.
    • Early interpreters of cuneiform included Sir Henry C. Rawlinson and G. F. Grotefend; important tablets include the Flood Tablet and the Epic of Gilgamesh (2nd millennium BCE), housed in the British Museum.
    • Key terms: pictograph, stylus, cuneiform writing.
  • Architectural and religious centers:
    • The ziggurat: stepped, pyramidal structures with a temple at the top; functioned to elevate shrines above flood levels and symbolically bridge earth and heaven.
    • Uruk and Ur host major temple complexes; two temples at Uruk mark early independent city-states; polytheism with deities such as Anu (sky god) and Inanna (goddess of love and war).
  • Major monuments and vessels:
    • White Temple and Ziggurat, Uruk (c. ext{ca. } 3300 ext{–}3000 ext{ BCE})
    • Reconstruction and plan of the Anu Ziggurat and White Temple (Uruk) – plan and terraces; altar and processional stairs documented in figures.
    • Nanna Ziggurat, Ur (c. 2100 ext{–}2050 ext{ BCE})
    • Sequences of temple sculpture and votive offerings.
  • Votive figures and statues:
    • Votive statues from Square Temple at Eshnunna (Tell Asmar) illustrate worshipers with clasped hands; limestone, alabaster, gypsum; heights up to 30'' for largest figure.
    • Head of a woman from Uruk (~c. 3300 ext{–}3000 ext{ BCE}); marble bust (~8'' tall).
  • Ceramics and vessels:
    • Scarlet Ware vase from Tutub (Tell Khafajeh) dating to c. 3000 ext{–}2350 ext{ BCE}; note on the archaeologist’s reliance on potsherds to determine chronology.
  • Narrative vessels and storytelling in sculpture:
    • The Uruk Vase (alabaster, ca. 3200 ext{–}3000 ext{ BCE}) presents a multi-register narration of offerings to Inanna; shows the use of horizontal bands (registers) to narrate events.
    • The alabaster vessel from Inanna’s temple complex demonstrates three registers retelling a divine marriage or ritual narrative.
  • Royal tombs and narrative sculpture:
    • The Standard of Ur (c. 2600 ext{–}2500 ext{ BCE}) employs shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone inlays with bitumen; front (war) and back (peace/banquet) registers illustrate political power and social hierarchy; function of the box remains debated.
    • The Great Lyre with Bull’s Head (Ur, c. 2600 ext{–}2500 ext{ BCE}) shows sophisticated inlay (gold, lapis lazuli, shell) on a wooden frame; front panel measures up to 55 rac{1}{2}'' in length; head height 14''; overall instrument length ~55 rac{1}{2}'' (≈ 140 cm).
  • Portable art and a notion of the individual:
    • Cylinder seals from Ur (lapis lazuli) and other stones: used to mark ownership; seals typically under 2'' in height; impressions survive wear due to shallow incisions.
    • Disk of Enheduanna (Akkadian) later integrates the idea of authorship into monumental relief; ancient relief depicts high priestess and marks one of the earliest recorded authors.
  • Techniques and materials:
    • Cone mosaic technique illustrated (reconstruction drawings in 2nd edition) – a distinct decorative technique seen in later Mesopotamian architecture.

Akkad (1 of 3)

  • Political consolidation:
    • The Akkadians settled north of Uruk during the Sumerian period; under Sargon I conquered much of Mesopotamia, initiating a new imperial era.
  • Key works and figures:
    • Disk of Enheduanna (alabaster, diameter 10'') documents the high priestess who is also recognized as an early author.
    • Head of a Ruler (Nineveh, c. 2300 ext{–}2200 ext{ BCE}) in copper alloy; first hollow-cast sculpture using lost-wax casting; features may reflect an idealized likeness; ears and eyes show deliberate damage.
  • Iconography and politics:
    • Stele of Naram-Sin (Sippar, later taken to Susa) commemorates a military victory; hierarchic scale places Naram-Sin as the largest figure, signaling status and power.

Ur and Lagash (2 of 2)

  • Urban developments and rulers:
    • After Akkad, the city-states of Ur and Lagash maintained independent rule; Lagash under Gudea thrived as a center of votive sculpture.
  • Nanna Ziggurat (Ur) and Gudea votive statues:
    • Gudea of Lagash commissioned votive statues in diorite to embody his just rule; a notable example is Votive Statue of Gudea (Lagash, c. 2090 ext{ BCE}) with water flowing from a vessel into two streams with leaping fish in the dedicated goddess Geshtinanna relief.
  • Plan and architectural context:
    • Seated statue of Gudea (Girsu) and temple plans illustrate the bureaucratic and religious life of the period.

Babylon (1 of 2)

  • Hammurabi and law:
    • Hammurabi’s era produced a comprehensive code inscribed on a stele in cuneiform; the Code of Hammurabi contains around 300 entries addressing property, domestic disputes, and physical assault; notable for the principle of retributive justice, “an eye for an eye.”
  • Stele of Hammurabi:
    • From Sippar, found at Susa; basalt stele height approximately 7' ext{4''}; figural relief height 28''; notable for its prologue and the code carved in cuneiform.

Assyrians and Neo-Babylonians (2 of 2)

  • Assyrian ascendancy and architectural practice:
    • Around 1400 ext{ BCE} to 600 ext{ BCE}, Assyrians built palaces on high platforms within fortified cities; wall reliefs depict battles, hunting, royal tribute, and religious imagery.
  • Assurnasirpal II in Kalhu (Nimrud):
    • Building program on mud-brick cores with limestone/alabaster decorations; guardian figures flanked gateways.
    • The Lion Hunt relief and enemies crossing Euphrates reliefs (c. 875 ext{–}860 ext{ BCE}) illustrate dramatic narrative scenes with detailed landscapes.
    • Assurnasirpal II killing lions ( alabaster, 39'' height) from Kalhu; a close-up study shows how royal power is portrayed through athletic prowess and control of nature.
  • Sargon II and Dur Sharrukin:
    • The Citadel and Palace Complex of Sargon II at Dur Sharrukin (Khorsabad) stands on a platform about 40'' high; main courtyard with service buildings and temples; colossal lamassus guard entry points.
    • Guardian figures at Gate A of the Citadel, demonstrating monumental gate sculpture and protective deities.
  • Assurbanipal and Nineveh:
    • Palace at Nineveh decorated with alabaster low-relief panels; one scene shows a victory celebration with the king, queen, servants, and enemies’ heads hung from trees.

Neo-Babylonian period (1 of 1)

  • Nebuchadnezzar II and urban patronage:
    • Nebuchadnezzar’s reign is marked by major architectural projects; the Processional Way (up to 66 ext{ ft} wide) led to the Ishtar Gate, a glazed-brick gate decorated with towers up to 100 ext{ ft} tall and crenellations.
  • Ishtar Gate and related architecture:
    • Ishtar Gate (c. 575 ext{ BCE}) featured rich glaze colors and reliefs; the gate’s height and tower structures illustrate the grand scale of Neo-Babylonian monumental architecture.
  • Ishtar Gate reconstruction and significance:
    • The gate and throne room walls survive as important examples of glazed brick decoration and provide insights into processional and ceremonial spaces of Mesopotamia's late period.

Persia (1–3 of 3)

  • Political consolidation and governance:
    • The Persians gained independence in 549 ext{ BCE} under Cyrus II (the Great). The Achaemenid dynasty, including Darius I and successors, organized a large empire with standardized taxation, currency, and communication systems.
  • Capital at Persepolis:
    • Construction begins around 515 ext{ BCE} on a grand, multicultural capital that integrated Persian, Median, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Greek influences.
    • Persepolis is built on a raised platform with a rectangular grid plan, reflecting administrative precision and ceremonial space.
  • Apadana and relief sculpture:
    • The Apadana (audience hall) features low reliefs of ranks of warriors; a stairway relief shows lions attacking bulls, symbolizing leadership ferocity; royal crown elements are adorned with gold leaf.
    • Darius and Xerxes receiving tribute (c. 491 ext{–}486 ext{ BCE}) in relief demonstrates imperial authority and international reach.

Think About It (cross-period prompts)

  • Compare Sumerian votive figures of Eshnunna to later relief sculpture in the Assyrian period; discuss how function (devotional vs. commemorative) shapes form.
  • Describe the development of relief sculpture in the ancient Near East and analyze two examples—one from Sumer, one from Assyria—and explain how symbols and narrative content express cultural values.
  • Select two rulers from chapter (e.g., Hammurabi and Nebuchadnezzar II) and explain how their legacies were preserved through commissioned works or architecture.
  • Explain how Woolley’s excavations at Ur contributed to modern understanding of Near Eastern art, including chronology, function, and social context.

Additional notes on vessels, reliefs, and inscriptions

  • The “royal tombs” and their imagery (lyres, banquet scenes, divine marriages, and epic cycles like the Epic of Gilgamesh) reveal a culture intertwining ritual, myth, and political power.
  • The use of registers in narrative scenes (e.g., Uruk Vase, Inanna vessel) demonstrates a sophisticated approach to storytelling in stone and alabaster.
  • The concept of “hieratic scale” appears in the Stele of Naram-Sin, where the ruler’s size communicates higher status and authority.
  • The practice of inscribing laws and narratives on steles and seals (cuneiform) created lasting legal and historical records, crucial for understanding Mesopotamian governance and belief systems.

Key dates and quantities (selected)

  • Lamassu: 883 ext{–}859 ext{ BCE}
  • Ishtar Gate built: c. 575 ext{ BCE}
  • Processional Way width: 66 ext{ ft}
  • Gate height: 40 ext{ ft}; towers height: 100 ext{ ft}
  • Ishtar Gate materials: glazed brick
  • Hammurabi Stele: height 7' ext{4''}; relief height 28''
  • Great Lyre overall length: 55 rac{1}{2}'' (≈ 140 cm); head height 14''; front panel height 13''
  • Uruk Vase: height 3' ext{1/4}''
  • Votive figures (Tell Asmar): largest figure ~30''
  • Cylinder seals: height ext{< }2'' ; impressions durable
  • Disk of Enheduanna: diameter 10''
  • Head of an Akkadian Ruler: height 14 rac{3}{8}''
  • Stele of Naram-Sin: height 6' ext{6''}
  • Nanna Ziggurat (Ur): dating c. 2100 ext{–}2050 ext{ BCE}
  • Gudea votive statue: height 29''
  • Ur and Lagash: ca. 2100 ext{–}2050 ext{ BCE} for Nan-na Ziggurat and related statuary
  • Babylon Hammurabi Stele: date c. 1792 ext{–}1750 ext{ BCE}
  • Assyrian relief scale in palace walls: heights around 39'' for lion reliefs
  • Persepolis: construction beginning ca. 515 ext{ BCE}; ceremonial complex built through the following centuries
  • Apadana relief height: 8'4'' for one detail in stair relief (example Darius/Xerxes reception)

Connections to broader themes

  • Art as political propaganda: pyramidal ziggurats and gate structures communicate state religion and power; reliefs celebrate victories and divine protection.
  • Religion as social glue: temples, votive offerings, and ritual spaces anchor economic and political life.
  • Technology and craft: cuneiform writing; lost-wax casting; inlays; cone mosaic; glazed brick technology illustrate the advanced craft of historic Mesopotamian societies.
  • Cross-cultural exchanges: Persepolis embodies a multicultural approach, mixing Persian, Median, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Greek influences; the Ishtar Gate demonstrates globalization of symbolic motifs across empires.
  • Chronology and dating methods: potsherds and ceramic typology are crucial for establishing relative dates; major monuments provide anchor dates that calibrate historical timelines.

Key terms to review

  • Cuneiform, pictograph, stylus, ziggurat, White Temple, Anu, Inanna, Nanna, Lamassu, hierarchic scale, relief, bas-relief, low relief, the Standard of Ur, inlay, conic mosaic/cone mosaic, votive figure, diorite, lost-wax casting, Apadana, Darius, Xerxes, Ishtar Gate, Persepolis, Nebuchadnezzar, Gate A, Susa, Khorsabad, Ur, Lagash, Girsu, Ninua, Nineveh, Dur Sharrukin, Kalhu, Nimrud, Susa, Hammurabi, Stele

Links to earlier and later contexts

  • Earlier: development of writing and state religion sets the foundation for later imperial iconography in Mesopotamian empires.
  • Later: Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid architecture show continuity and adaptation of monumental forms across centuries and cultures.
  • Cross-cultural study: comparing Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Persian art reveals shifting political priorities, religious symbolism, and technical prowess across millennia.