AP Government Exam Review Notes
Unit 1: Foundations of American Democracy
Participatory Democracy: A model emphasizing broad participation in political decision-making.
Elite Democracy: A model where a small group of influential individuals holds power, decision-making is primarily held by elites.
Pluralist Democracy: A model where multiple groups influence politics, allowing various interests to coexist.
Direct Democracy: Citizens directly participate in decision-making without representatives.
Federalism: A system of government where power is divided between national and state governments.
Factions: Groups of citizens united by a common interest, often conflicting with the rights of others.
Articles of Confederation: The first constitution, established a weak central government.
Strengths: Allowed for state sovereignty and made treaties.
Weaknesses: Lacked executive power, unable to levy taxes, and no federal currency.
New Jersey Plan: Proposed a unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state.
Virginia Plan: Proposed a bicameral legislature with representation based on state population.
3/5ths Compromise: Determined that three-fifths of enslaved persons would be counted for taxation and representation.
Great Compromise: Established a bicameral legislature, combining elements of both the New Jersey and Virginia Plans.
Enumerated Powers: Powers specifically listed in the Constitution (e.g., Congress's power to tax).
Reserved Powers: Powers not delegated to the national government, reserved for states (e.g., education).
Implied Powers: Powers not explicitly stated but necessary to implement enumerated powers (e.g., create a national bank).
Necessary and Proper Clause: Allows Congress to make laws needed to exercise its enumerated powers.
Supremacy Clause: Establishes that federal law takes precedence over state law.
Commerce Clause: Grants Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce.
Full Faith and Credit Clause: Requires states to respect the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other states.
Dual Federalism: Clear separation of powers between national and state governments.
Cooperative Federalism: National and state governments work together to solve problems.
Competitive Federalism: States compete to attract business and residents.
10th Amendment: Reserves powers not delegated to the federal government for the states or the people.
Block Grants: Federal funds given to states for broad purposes with few restrictions.
Categorical Grants: Federal funds for specific purposes, with strict regulations.
Mandate: An official order for states to comply with certain laws or standards.
Unfunded Mandate: Mandates requiring states to perform certain actions without federal funding.
Federalist 10: Argues that a large republic will control factions by diluting their power, preventing tyranny.
Federalist 51: Advocates for checks and balances within government branches to protect against tyranny.
Brutus 1: Critiques the proposed Constitution, arguing it would lead to an overpowerful central government.
Declaration of Independence: Asserts the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; foundational to American democracy.
Constitution: The supreme law outlining the framework of government and the rights of citizens.
Unit 2: 3 Branches of Government
Conference Committee: A temporary panel formed to reconcile differences in legislation passed by both chambers.
Standing Committee: A permanent committee that deals with specific areas of public policy.
Select Committee: A temporary committee established for a specific purpose (e.g., investigations).
Pork Barrel Legislation: Government spending for localized projects secured primarily to bring money to a representative's district.
Speaker of the House: The presiding officer of the House, responsible for legislative agenda.
President of the Senate: The Vice President serves as the President of the Senate, primarily votes in case of ties.
President Pro Tempore: A senior member of the majority party, presides over the Senate in the absence of the Vice President.
Majority Leader (Senate): The leader of the majority party in the Senate, responsible for scheduling legislation.
Whips: Party leaders who ensure party discipline and attendance for votes.
Rule Committee: Determines the rules and schedules for bills in the House.
Filibuster: A strategy to delay legislation by extending debate.
Cloture: A procedure to end a filibuster with a vote.
Discharge Petition: A means by which members can force a bill out of committee for a vote.
Gerrymander: Manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor a particular political party.
Redistrict: The process of redrawing district lines after the census.
Reapportionment: The process of reallocating seats in the legislative body, typically following the census.
Malapportionment: Unequal representation in legislative districts.
Baker v. Carr: A landmark Supreme Court case establishing the principle of 'one person, one vote'.
Shaw v. Reno: A case addressing racial gerrymandering, stating it can violate the Equal Protection Clause.
Trustee Role: Legislators follow their own judgment rather than constituents' wishes.
Delegate Role: Legislators strictly follow the wishes of their constituents.
Politico Role: A mix of trustee and delegate roles, depending on the issue.
Discretionary vs. Mandatory Spending: Discretionary spending is optional, while mandatory spending is required.
Fed 70: Argues for a strong, unitary executive for effective government.
22nd Amendment: Limits presidential terms to two.
25th Amendment: Addresses presidential succession and disability.
Pendleton Act: Established a merit-based system for federal employment.
Patronage vs. Merit-Based System: Patronage rewards political support; merit-based rewards qualifications.
Independent Executive Agency: Government entities independent of the executive departments.
Independent Regulatory Commission: Agencies created by Congress to regulate specific areas.
Government Corporation: A government agency that operates like a business.
Iron Triangle: The stable, mutually beneficial relationship between Congress, government bureaucracies, and lobbyists.
Control of Bureaucracy: Ensured through checks and balances involving the legislature, executive, and judiciary; includes oversight and budget control.
Unit 3: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
Marbury v. Madison: Established judicial review; court case facts include Judge Marbury's courts appointment.
Fed 78: Advocates for the judiciary's role as a safeguard against legislative encroachments on rights.
Stare Decisis: The legal principle of adhering to precedents in court rulings.
Writ of Certiorari: A request for the Supreme Court to review a lower court's decision.
Amicus Curiae brief: A document submitted by a non-party, offering information and expertise in a case.
Rule of 4: The Supreme Court will hear a case if four justices agree to do so.
Judicial Activism vs. Judicial Restraint: Activism means judges interpret laws broadly, while restraint emphasizes limited judicial role.
Majority, Dissenting, and Concurring Opinions: Types of judicial opinions that detail the rulings and reasons behind them.
Types of Jurisdiction:
District Court: Original jurisdiction, hears most federal cases.
Appellate Court: Reviews lower court decisions.
Supreme Court: Highest court, has both original and appellate jurisdiction.
Amendments 1-10: Bill of Rights protecting individual liberties.
Engel v. Vitale: Supreme Court ruling against school-sponsored prayer based on First Amendment rights.
Wisconsin v. Yoder: Supreme Court ruling allowing Amish students to drop out of school for religious reasons.
Tinker v. Des Moines: Established that students do not lose their First Amendment rights at school.
Schenck v. US: Established limits on free speech during wartime under the "clear and present danger" test.
Gideon v. Wainwright: Right to counsel; defendants must be provided an attorney if they cannot afford one.
McDonald v. Chicago: Incorporated the Second Amendment right to bear arms against states.
Brown v. Board of Education: Declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.
US v. Nixon: Established limitations on presidential privilege; centered on Watergate scandal.
Unit 4: American Political Culture
Political Socialization: The process by which individuals form their political beliefs and values.
Political Ideology: A consistent set of beliefs about politics, economy, and society.
Liberal: Advocates for social justice, environmental protection, and progressive taxation.
Conservative: Emphasizes tradition, individual responsibility, and limited government.
Libertarian: Values personal freedom and minimal government intervention in both personal and economic matters.
Support for Republicans: Typically includes whites, religious individuals, and higher income brackets.
Support for Democrats: Often includes minorities, urban residents, and lower income groups.
Exit Polls: Surveys conducted with voters immediately after they cast their ballots.
Tracking Polls: Continuous surveys that track changes in public opinion over time.
Margin of Error: A statistical term indicating the potential error in a poll's results.
Unit 5: Political Participation
15th Amendment: Prohibits denying the right to vote based on race.
17th Amendment: Established direct election of senators by voters.
19th Amendment: Granted women the right to vote.
24th Amendment: Prohibits poll taxes in federal elections.
26th Amendment: Lowers the voting age to 18.
Retrospective Voting: Voting based on an assessment of a candidate's past performance.
Prospective Voting: Voting based on predictions of a candidate's future performance.
Political Efficacy: The belief that one's participation in politics makes a difference.
Primary vs. General Election: Primaries determine party nominees, while general elections decide officeholders.
Open Primary vs. Closed Primary: Open primaries allow any voter to participate, closed limit voting to registered party members.
Linkage Institutions: Structures that connect citizens to the government (e.g., parties, interest groups).
Citizens United v. FEC: A Supreme Court case that allowed unlimited spending by corporations in elections.
Interest Groups: Organizations aiming to influence public policy.
Lobbyists: Individuals hired by interest groups to influence legislation.
PACs: Political Action Committees that raise and spend money to elect or defeat candidates.
Incumbency Advantage: Incumbents have a higher chance of re-election due to name recognition and experience.
Electoral College: A group of representatives from each state that formally elects the President and Vice President.
Federal Election Campaign Acts: Laws regulating campaign financing.
McCain-Feingold (Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act): Legislation aimed at regulating the financing of political campaigns.
PAC vs. 501c vs. Super PAC: Different types of funding organizations with varying regulations on contributions.
Horse Race Journalism: Media coverage focusing on polling results and electoral competitiveness.
Gatekeeper Role: Media's role in determining which news stories are covered.
Scorekeeper Role: Media’s role in tracking political success.
Watchdog Role: Media’s responsibility to scrutinize public figures and expose wrongdoing.