El Virreinato y el Proceso de Independencia

Social Organization of the Viceroyalty

The social structure of the Viceroyalty was strictly divided into two primary groups known as republics: the Republic of Spaniards and the Republic of Indians. Within the Spanish republic, a clear hierarchy existed based on place of birth. The Spanish Peninsulars were individuals born in Spain to Spanish parents, while the Spanish Creoles (Criollos) were individuals of Spanish parentage born in the Americas. The Indian republic was characterized by the leadership of the Cacique, who served as the chief of the indigenous communities.

In addition to these republics, a complex Caste System (Sistema de Castas) emerged from the racial combination of different groups. This system was governed by legal and social prejudice. The primary classifications included the Mestizo, resulting from the union of a Spaniard and an Indian; the Mulatto, from the union of a Spaniard and a Black person; and the Zambo, from the union of a Black person and an Indian.

Political Organization and Authorities

The political structure was headed by the King of Spain, who was the supreme authority. The government functioned as an absolute monarchy, and the King exercised his power through the signing of "Reales Cedulas" (Royal Decrees). Under the King, several institutions and authorities managed the colonies:

The Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias) was created by King Carlos I in $1524$. This body was composed of Spanish Peninsulars and was responsible for administering the Spanish colonies in America.

The Viceroy (Virrey) served as the direct representative of the King in America. The duration of this office was not fixed (no tenía tiempo de duración). The Viceroy held extensive political, ecclesiastical, and economic powers.

The Real Audiencia was the maximum tribunal of justice in America and also served to replace the Viceroy in the event of their death. The Corregidor was an office created to address abuses against the indigenous people; these provinces were later replaced by the Intendencias (similar to modern departments) to improve administration.

At the local level, the Cabildo governed cities and villas, functioning similarly to modern municipalities. Additionally, Captaincies (Capitanías) were established as territories of a military nature to manage areas of conflict or strategic importance.

Economy and Labor: The Mita and Taxation

The colonial economy relied heavily on forms of forced labor known as the Mita. The Mita Minera involved the exploitation of minerals, specifically gold, silver, and mercury. This work was obligatory and poorly remunerated, forcing indigenous males between the ages of $18$ and $50$ years old to labor in the mines. The Mita Obrajera took place in textile workshops (obrajes) dedicated to the production of fabrics, woolen threads, and cotton products such as blankets, socks, and hats. The number of these workshops grew due to high demand. The Mita de Plaza involved forced labor in public works projects.

Financial resources were secured through various types of taxes. Almojarifazgo was an import and export tax. Alcabala was applied to the purchase and sale of movable goods. The Quinto Real consisted of a payment of $15$ to $20\%$ of all extracted metals to the Spanish Crown. Media Anata was a tax paid by those occupying public offices (cargos públicos).

Education and Religion

Education during the Viceroyalty was highly exclusive and intended for the privileged class. It was characterized by being religious, dogmatic, and focused on textual repetition (memoristic). Access was divided: elite schools were reserved for Spaniards and Creoles, while specific schools for nobles were established for Caciques and certain Mestizos.

Religion was institutionalized starting in $1541$. The first Archbishop was Fray Jerónimo de Loayza. The church implemented a policy of "Extirpation of Idolatries" to eliminate indigenous religious practices. Several religious orders played key roles in the colony:

1. Dominicans (arrived in $1532$): They founded the City of Kings (Lima) and established the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos (UNMSM).
2. Franciscans (arrived in $1532$): They were active missionaries in the central jungle (Selva Central).
3. Mercedarians (arrived in $1533$).
4. Augustinians (arrived in $1551$): One of their monks, Diego Ortiz, is noted for converting Cusi Yupanqui.
5. Jesuits (arrived in $1568$).

Colonial Art and Architecture

Colonial architecture was prominently influenced by the Baroque style during the $17^{th}$ and $18^{th}$ centuries. This style is visible in the ornate bell towers, domes, and facades (portadas) of colonial churches. Artistic expression also flourished in woodcarving, specifically in the creation of altarpieces (retablos), choir stalls (sillerías corales), pulpits (púlpitos), chest-of-drawers (cajonerías), and various religious imagery.

Indigenous Rebellions

During the $18^{th}$ century, significant indigenous uprisings occurred against Spanish rule. Juan Santos Atahualpa (Apu Inca) led a rebellion from $1742$ to $1756$ in the central jungle region known as the Gran Pajonal. His movement included the Asháninkas, Shipibos, and Conibos tribes, and he sought to regain control of territories in areas like Chanchamayo and Andamarca.

Túpac Amaru II (José Gabriel Condorcanqui) was born in Surimana, Canas, Cusco, in $1741$. He was a Cacique of Surimana, Tungasuca, and Pampamarca, and worked as a muleteer (arriero) with more than $300$ mules. He was educated at a Jesuit school and was married to Micaela Bastidas Puyucahua; they had three sons: Hipólito, Mariano, and Fernandito.

The causes of his rebellion included the increase in the Mita (specifically for Potosí), the legalization of the "Reparto de Mercancías" (forced distribution of goods), the rejection of the Bourbon Reforms, and the persistence of slavery and indigenous tribute. The Quechua Phase of the rebellion began on November $4$, $1780$, with the capture and subsequent execution of the Corregidor Antonio de Arriaga.

The Liberating Expedition of the South

Led by José de San Martin, the Liberating Current of the South aimed to liberate Chile and then invade Peru to end Spanish rule. The independence of Chile was achieved through the Battle of Chacabuco on February $12$, $1817$, and was sealed at the Battle of Maipú on April $5$, $1818$.

In Peru ($1820$-$1821$), San Martin proposed a transition to a constitutional monarchy. Key military actions included the expedition of Álvarez de Arenales to the central highlands, resulting in a victory at Cerro de Pasco with indigenous support. San Martin then established his headquarters in Huaura. During this time, the Mutiny of Aznapuquio led to José de la Serna becoming the last Viceroy.

San Martin entered Lima on July $12$, $1821$. The Act of Independence was written by Manuel Pérez de Tudela and signed on July $15$. The formal proclamation of independence followed, marking a pivotal step in the end of the Viceroyalty.