Learning and Behaviorism Lecture (OpenStax Psychology 2e – Chapter 6)

Unlearned Behaviors: Instincts and Reflexes

  • Innate behaviors (do not require experience) help organisms adapt.
    • Reflexes
      • Automatic motor / neural reactions to a specific stimulus.
      • Simpler than instincts; involve isolated body parts and primitive CNS centers (spinal cord, medulla).
      • Example: newborn human sucking reflex.
    • Instincts
      • Triggered by broader events (e.g., aging, seasonal change).
      • More complex; involve the whole organism; require higher brain centers.
      • Examples: migration, mating rituals.

Defining Learning

  • Learning = “a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.”
    • Involves both conscious & unconscious processes.
    • Produces associative learning: connecting stimuli/events that co-occur.
  • Core behaviorist approaches
    1. Classical conditioning
    2. Operant conditioning
    3. Observational learning
  • Illustration: Dog associates specific behaviors with receiving treats → operant example.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

  • Organism learns to associate two stimuli and anticipate events.
  • Pavlov’s dogs salivated to footsteps → discovery of conditioned responses.

Terminology & Stages

  • Before Conditioning
    • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): food.
    • Unconditioned response (UCR): salivation.
    \text{Food (UCS)} \rightarrow \text{Salivation (UCR)}
  • During Conditioning
    • Neutral stimulus (NS): bell (no salivation initially).
    • Pair NS with UCS repeatedly: \text{Bell (NS)} + \text{Food (UCS)} \rightarrow \text{Salivation (UCR)}
  • After Conditioning
    • Bell becomes conditioned stimulus (CS).
    • Conditioned response (CR): salivation to bell.
    \text{Bell (CS)} \rightarrow \text{Salivation (CR)}

Higher-Order Conditioning

  • A second-order stimulus (e.g., squeaky cabinet) paired with existing CS (can opener) → also elicits CR (cat salivation) even without original CS.

General Processes

  • Acquisition: initial pairing phase; optimal when interval between NS & UCS is very short.
    • Exception: taste aversion can emerge after hours & single pairing.
  • Extinction: CR weakens when CS appears without UCS.
  • Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of extinct CR after rest.
  • Stimulus discrimination: respond differently to similar stimuli (specific bell vs. other bell tone).
  • Stimulus generalization: respond to stimuli resembling CS (fear of one spider → fear of all).
  • Habituation: decreased response to repeated, unchanging stimulus.

Acquisition / Extinction Curve

  • Rising curve = strength of CR during acquisition.
  • Decline = extinction.
  • Brief plateau & resurgence after pause = spontaneous recovery.

Behaviorism & Human Emotions (Watson)

  • John B. Watson: all behavior = stimulus–response; emotions can be classically conditioned.

Little Albert Study

  • Phase 1: Neutral furry objects (white rat, rabbit, dog, cotton) → no fear.
  • Phase 2: Pair each touch with loud noise → induces fear (UCR).
  • Phase 3: After repetitions, Albert fears the furry stimulus alone (CR).
  • Stimulus generalization: fear extended to all furry items (even Watson in Santa mask).
  • Ethical concerns: long-term effects unknown; no desensitization reported.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

  • Organisms learn association between behavior and consequence.
    • Grounded in Law of Effect (behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes more likely repeated).
  • Terminology matrix
    • Positive = add stimulus.
    • Negative = remove stimulus.
    • Reinforcement = increase behavior.
    • Punishment = decrease behavior.

Skinner Box

  • Chamber with lever/key; pressing releases food.
  • Enabled precise study of response rates & schedules.

Reinforcement

  • Positive reinforcement (add pleasant): high grades, paychecks, praise, sticker charts → trip to ice-cream.
  • Negative reinforcement (remove unpleasant): seat-belt beep stops when belt fastened.

Punishment

  • Positive punishment (add unpleasant): scolding for texting.
  • Negative punishment (remove pleasant): toy taken after misbehavior.

Shaping

  • Reinforce successive approximations toward complex target behavior.
    1. Reward any resemblance.
    2. Reward closer approximations; stop earlier rewards.
    3. Continue until only exact behavior reinforced.
  • Critical for training animals & teaching multistep tasks.

Reinforcers

  • Primary: innate value (food, water, sleep, sex, pleasure).
  • Secondary: learned value via association (praise, money, tokens).
    • Token economies in prisons, schools, hospitals.

Reinforcement Schedules

  • Continuous: reinforce every correct response → fastest acquisition but rapid extinction.
  • Partial (Intermittent): reinforce only some responses → slower acquisition, greater resistance to extinction.

Dimensions

  • Fixed vs. Variable & Interval vs. Ratio
    • Fixed Interval (FI): predictable time gaps (pain meds every 4 hours).
    • Variable Interval (VI): unpredictable time gaps (checking Facebook).
    • Fixed Ratio (FR): predictable response count (paid per 10 products).
    • Variable Ratio (VR): unpredictable response count (slot machines).

Behavioral Patterns

  • VR: highest, steady response; hard to extinguish (gambling).
  • FR: high response then pause (commission sales).
  • VI: moderate steady (restaurant manager checks).
  • FI: “scallop” pattern—post-reinforcement pause then acceleration (surgery patient waits for next dose).

Observational Learning (Modeling)

  • Learn by watching others then imitating (monkey drinks from bottle after watching human).
  • Model = individual demonstrating behavior.

Types of Models

a. Live: actual person (yoga instructor).
b. Symbolic: via media/imagery (TV character) – physical presence unnecessary.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

  • Learning requires cognitive processes beyond mere imitation.
  • Modeling process steps
    1. Attention – noticing behavior.
    2. Retention – remembering.
    3. Reproduction – ability to perform.
    4. Motivation – desire; influenced by observed outcomes.
  • Vicarious reinforcement / punishment modulate observer’s likelihood to imitate.

Bobo Doll Experiment

  • Children watched adult attack 5-foot Bobo doll.
    • Adult consequences manipulated: praised, punished, or ignored.
    • Results: punishment ↓ child aggression; praise/neutral ↑ imitation.
  • Conclusion: observed consequences shape children’s behaviors; implications for prosocial & antisocial modeling.

Media Violence & Aggression

  • Research indicates correlation between exposure to violent video games/TV and aggressive behavior in children—ongoing debate over causality.

Ethical & Practical Implications

  • Conditioning principles inform therapy, education, marketing, animal training, habit formation.
  • Ethical concerns:
    • Conditioning fear in infants (Little Albert) violates modern standards.
    • Use of punishment vs. reinforcement—side effects (anxiety, aggression, avoidance).
  • Importance of positional awareness: reinforcement schedules can foster problem gambling (VR schedules).

Key Take-Away Equations & Numbers

  • Acquisition pairing frequency often \geq 5–10 repetitions (rule of thumb).
  • Fixed Ratio example: \text{Pay} = \$10 \times (\text{every } 50 \text{ items}).
  • Scallop pattern in FI visualized as successive curves peaking just before reinforcement interval lapses.

Connections to Foundational Principles

  • Law of Effect (Thorndike) → foundation for Skinner’s operant framework.
  • Cognitive revolution highlighted limits of strict behaviorism, yet social learning theory bridged behavioral & cognitive domains.

Real-World Applications

  • Education: token economies, shaping through incremental goals.
  • Clinical: systematic desensitization uses classical principles to treat phobias.
  • Workplace: variable ratio bonuses to maintain high productivity.
  • Technology: app notifications exploit VI schedules to drive engagement.