Operant Extinction: Elimination and Generation of Behavior
Authors: Kennon A. Lattal, Claire St. Peter, Rogelio Escobar
Source: APA Handbook of Behavior Analysis, Vol. 2
DOI: 10.1037/13938-004
Introduction to Operant Extinction
Skinner (1956) recounts how his discovery of operant extinction curves began with an equipment malfunction (a jammed pellet dispenser).
Under nonreinforced conditions, lever pressing decreased gradually, creating the first recorded extinction curve.
Skinner described this observation as “pure behavior,” akin to Pavlov’s work, marking a significant notion about learned behavior.
Generality of Extinction
Extinction is prevalent across various forms of conditioning (classical and operant) and is observed in diverse species, from invertebrates to humans.
The effects of extinction manifest complexity, not merely in behavior cessation, but in the potential for related responses to be diminished as well.
Discriminative Stimulus Control vs. Learning-Performance Distinction
Some scholars view extinction through the lens of discriminative stimulus control while others relate extinction to the learning-performance distinction (Hull, 1943).
Historical Context of Extinction Research
Early Understanding of Extinction
Sherrington (1906) used "extinction" as synonymous with elimination of reflexes; suggested altering stimuli or nerve connections could lead to extinction.
Pavlov (1927) defined extinction: a progressive weakening of conditioned reflex to a stimulus that is repeated without reinforcement.
He differentiated between conditional stimulus becoming inhibitory and external inhibition from different stimuli reducing response probability.
Watson (1916, 1924) noted extinction could occur due to lack of practice or rapid stimulus repetition.
Evolving Definitions
Hull (1929) discussed the phases of excitation during conditioning and inhibition during extinction.
Skinner (1933a, 1933b) described extinction as a decline in strength due to removing reinforcement, distinguishing between respondent and operant conditioning.
Definitions and General Characteristics of Extinction
Procedural Definition
Extinction refers to the discontinuation of reinforcement for a response (e.g., removing a positive reinforcer).
In cases of negatively reinforced behavior, three extinction procedures can be applied:
Making the negative reinforcer noneliminable.
Intermittent termination of the negative reinforcer.
Complete removal of the negative reinforcer following initial training.
Functional Dimensions
The function of extinction is to eliminate or decrease responding within a context but not necessarily to zero across all contexts.
Planned ignoring exemplifies the issues with applying procedural versus functional definitions of extinction.
Generative Effects of Extinction
Research shows extinction processes can also generate behavioral changes, including:
Extinction-induced variability: Increasing varied responses following extinction, not just the decrease in the target response.
Emergence of alternative behaviors and varying topographies linked to previous operants.
Stability and Variability in Behavior During Extinction
Extinction may maintain the form of the previously reinforced response while reducing frequency.
Responses may reoccur in different contexts after cessation of extinction, indicating both stability and variability.
Mechanisms and Effects of Extinction
Eliminative Effects
Primary effect is a decrease in response rates to near zero.
Studies highlight different methodologies to examine the effects of extinction on responses maintained by positive reinforcement.
Evidence supports that intermittent reinforcement leads to greater resistance to extinction compared to continuous reinforcement.
Extinction patterns differ based on training schedules (e.g., fixed-interval vs. variable-ratio schedules).
Extinction Applications
Response shaping: This dynamic involves adjusting reinforcement criteria over time, leading to extinction of previously acceptable responses and reinforcing approximations to targets.
Differential reinforcement can be used alongside extinction in techniques aimed at behavior change.
Consequences of Extinction
Extinction-Induced Behavior
Increased likelihood of aggressive responses during extinction periods (Azrin, Hutchinson, & Hake, 1966).
Schedule-induced drinking observed during periods of nonreinforcement; examples include reactions to fixed interval and frustration schedules.
Contrast Effects
Positive behavioral contrast occurs when responding increases in conditions still providing reinforcement after an extinction episode in another component.
Spontaneous Recovery
Leads to recurrence of previous responses after a hiatus from extinction conditions. Factors influencing spontaneous recovery include reinforcement histories and stimuli used during conditioning.
Reinstatement and Resurgence
Reinstatement denotes the reappearance of behavior when the previously enforced reinforcer is reintroduced under independent conditions post-extinction.
Resurgence is the return of previously reinforced responses upon the extinction of a newer, different response.
Conclusion
Research and Applications
Extinction encompasses complex definitions, mechanisms, and implications.
Continued translational research is essential to explore extinction processes deeply for broader behavioral applications.
Implications for Behavior Change
Understanding extinction is vital for addressing behavior problems across contexts, such as phobias, addiction, and behavioral disorders.
Skinner (1956) recounts how his discovery of operant extinction curves began with an equipment malfunction (a jammed pellet dispenser). Under nonreinforced conditions, lever pressing decreased gradually, creating the first recorded extinction curve. Skinner described this observation as “pure behavior,” akin to Pavlov’s work, marking a significant notion about learned behavior.
Extinction is prevalent across various forms of conditioning (classical and operant) and is observed in diverse species, from invertebrates to humans. The effects of extinction manifest complexity, not merely in behavior cessation, but in the potential for related responses to be diminished as well.
Some scholars view extinction through the lens of discriminative stimulus control while others relate extinction to the learning-performance distinction (Hull, 1943).
Historically, the early understanding of extinction was explored by Sherrington (1906), who used "extinction" as synonymous with elimination of reflexes. He suggested that altering stimuli or nerve connections could lead to extinction. Pavlov (1927) defined extinction as a progressive weakening of conditioned reflex to a stimulus that is repeated without reinforcement. He differentiated between the conditional stimulus becoming inhibitory and external inhibition from different stimuli reducing response probability.
Watson (1916, 1924) noted that extinction could occur due to lack of practice or rapid stimulus repetition. Hull (1929) discussed the phases of excitation during conditioning and inhibition during extinction, while Skinner (1933a, 1933b) described extinction as a decline in strength due to removing reinforcement, distinguishing between respondent and operant conditioning.
Extinction refers to the discontinuation of reinforcement for a response (e.g., removing a positive reinforcer). In cases of negatively reinforced behavior, three extinction procedures can be applied: making the negative reinforcer noneliminable, intermittently terminating the negative reinforcer, and completely removing the negative reinforcer following initial training.
The function of extinction is to eliminate or decrease responding within a context but not necessarily to zero across all contexts. Planned ignoring exemplifies the issues with applying procedural versus functional definitions of extinction.
Research shows extinction processes can also generate behavioral changes, which include extinction-induced variability that increases varied responses following extinction, not just the decrease in the target response. Additionally, the emergence of alternative behaviors and varying topographies linked to previous operants can occur.
Extinction may maintain the form of the previously reinforced response while reducing frequency. However, responses may reoccur in different contexts after cessation of extinction, indicating both stability and variability.
The primary eliminative effect of extinction is a decrease in response rates to near zero. Studies highlight different methodologies to examine the effects of extinction on responses maintained by positive reinforcement. Evidence supports that intermittent reinforcement leads to greater resistance to extinction compared to continuous reinforcement, and extinction patterns differ based on training schedules (e.g., fixed-interval vs. variable-ratio schedules).
Response shaping involves adjusting reinforcement criteria over time, leading to extinction of previously acceptable responses and reinforcing approximations to targets. Differential reinforcement can be used alongside extinction in techniques aimed at behavior change.
During extinction periods, increased likelihood of aggressive responses is noted (Azrin, Hutchinson, & Hake, 1966). Schedule-induced drinking is observed during periods of nonreinforcement, with examples including reactions to fixed interval and frustration schedules. Positive behavioral contrast occurs when responding increases in conditions still providing reinforcement after an extinction episode in another component.
Spontaneous recovery leads to the recurrence of previous responses after a hiatus from extinction conditions. Factors influencing spontaneous recovery include reinforcement histories and stimuli used during conditioning. Reinstatement denotes the reappearance of behavior when the previously enforced reinforcer is reintroduced under independent conditions post-extinction. Resurgence, on the other hand, is the return of previously reinforced responses upon the extinction of a newer, different response.
In conclusion, extinction encompasses complex definitions, mechanisms, and implications. Continued translational research is essential to explore extinction processes deeply for broader behavioral applications. Understanding extinction is vital for addressing behavior problems across contexts, such as phobias, addiction, and behavioral disorders.