AP Biology II
Unit 1 : Chemistry of life
1.1
I can describe a hydrogen bond.
The partially positive hydrogen atom in one polar covalent molecule will be attracted to an electronegative atom in another polar covalent molecule.
I can explain how two strands of DNA bind to create the double helix.
Two strands of DNA bind together to form a double helix by forming hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs (Adenine to Thymine; Cytosine to Guanine).
I can explain ways that R groups affect the structure of a protein.
The R groups are variable side chains, which are a bunch of amino acids. Through this they can affect the way the protein bends and affect its function.
I can identify the properties of water caused by hydrogen bonds.
Polarity - The polar covalent bonds (unequal sharing of electrons) between oxygen and hydrogen
Cohesion - Water attracts to water, allowing it to defy gravity inside the plant.
Adhesion - Water attracts to other molecules (specifically the xylem wall of the plant’s roots), allowing it also defy defy gravity.
Capillary Action - The water movement moving upward in the roots due to cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension
Temperature Control - Water resists changes in temperature because heat is absorbed to break hydrogen bonds but heat is also released when hydrogen bonds form.
Moderates air temperature (water absorbs heat in the day and releases it in the night)
Stabilizes ocean temperatures
Organisms can resist changes in their own internal temperature
High heat of vaporization - water requires a large amount of energy to evaporate due to strong hydrogen bonds.
Evaporative cooling: as water molecules, evaporate, the surface the evaporate from gets colder.
Density (floating ice) - as water solidifies it expands, and becomes less dense due to the hydrogen bonds.
Allows marine life to survive under water.
I can explain what makes water polar.
Water is polar because it binds to an electronegative atom (like O/N/F) to where the electrons are not shared equally, leaving the hydrogen with a partially positive charge.
I can explain what moves water against gravity up a capillary tube.
Cohesion and adhesion work together to make surface tension, allowing the water to defy gravity.
I can explain what allows a water strider to walk on water.
Water striders can "walk on water" because of a phenomenon called surface tension, where the water's surface acts like a thin film due to the strong attraction between water molecules
1.2
I can identify the macromolecules required by living organisms.
Carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic, acids, lipids
I can describe the function of proteins in living organisms.
A molecule consisting of polypeptide (polymers of amino acids) folded into a 3-D shape.
Consist of elements C, H, O, N, S
Monomers are amino acids.
Polymer is polypeptides.
I can describe the function of lipids in living organisms.
They are small nonpolar hydrophobic classes of molecules that do not include true polymers.
Some lipids are:
Fats - consisted of 3 fatty acids (carboxyl group) and one glycerol (hydroxyl group). The fatty acids can be saturated (no double bonds and saturated with hydrogen) or unsaturated (has double bonds).
Phospholipids - consist of two fatty acids, one glycerol, and a phosphate. The tails are hydrophobic, and the heads are hydrophilic.
Steroids - 4 fused rings
Consists of elements C, H, O, P
Monomers are fatty acids and glycerol
Doesn’t contain true monomers
I can describe the function of carbohydrates in living organisms.
Function as a sugar
Consists of C, H, O
Monomers are monosaccharide
Polymers are polysaccharides
I can describe the function of nucleic acids in living organisms.
Its function is to store, transmit, and express hereditary information.
Consists of G, H, O, N, P
Monomers are nucleotides
Polymers are DNA/RNA
I can explain ways that R groups affect the structure of a protein.
The R groups consist of amino acids, being the Primary stage so if one of the amino acids are different then it will affect the secondary (coiling due to hydrogen bonding), tertiary (3D folding due to the side chains), and quaternary stages (more polypeptides).
I can describe how macromolecules are formed.
Dehydration Reaction
A macromolecule consists of a ton of polymers that fold to make its structure.
I can describe how macromolecules are broken down.
Hydrolysis
I can identify which macromolecules contain nitrogen.
Proteins and Nucleic acids
I can identify which macromolecules contain phosphorus.
Nucleic acids and Lipids
I can identify which macromolecules contain sulfur.
Only Proteins
1.3
I can describe the process of hydrolysis.
Breaking down the bonds of a polymer by adding water, One H of the water bonds to one monomer and the remaining OH of the water attaches to the other monomer.
AB + H2O —> A + B
I can describe the process of dehydration.
The OH of one monomer to the H of another to make H2O, essentially taking away water.
A + B —> AB + H2O
I can identify the bond between carbohydrate monomers.
The bonds between the carbohydrate monomers are through glycosidic bonds.
The monomers are Glucose and Fructose, then go through a dehydration reaction to create sucrose (polymer).
I can identify the bond between protein monomers.
The bonds between the protein monomers are through peptide bonds.
The monomers are Alanine (OH) and Glycine (H2N), then go through dehydration reaction to create a polymer
I can identify the bond between nucleic acid monomers.
The bonds between the nucleic acid monomers are through phosphoester bonds.
1.4
I can describe the structural components of the monomer of a carbohydrate.
A monosaccharide is a simple sugar with the components of CH2O
Glucose —> cellular fuel
I can describe the structural components of the monomer of a protein.
Amino acids are molecules that have animo groups and a carboxyl group, consisting of C, H, O, N, S
I can describe the structural components of the monomer of a nucleic acid.
Nucleotides are created when a phosphate group is added to the 5’ carbon of the sugar (which is added to the nitrogenous base).
Nitrogenous base
1. Pyrimidines - Cytosine/Thymine/Uracil
2. Purines - Adenine/Guanine
Five Carbon Sugar -
Deoxyribose is the sugar of DNA
Ribose is the sugar of the RNA
I can describe the structural components of a phospholipid.
A phospholipid is two fatty acids attached to a glycerol and a phosphate.
Tails
Heads
I can describe the difference between the bonds of starch and cellulose.
Starch is a polymer of glucose monomers
Allows plants to store extra glucose
Cellulose is a tough substance that forms plant cell walls.
I can describe the structural differences between DNA and RNA.
DNA
Double stranded (held together by hydrogen bonds)
Cytosine to Guanine
Adenine to Thymine
RNA
Single stranded
Cytosine to Guanine
Adenine to Uracil
I can identify an R group as hydrophobic, hydrophilic, or ionic.
Hydrophobic
A non-polar R group with only carbon-hydrogen bonds, like a long chain of CH2 groups, would be considered hydrophobic
Hydrophilic
An R group with polar functional groups like hydroxyl (-OH), amino (-NH2), or carboxyl (-COOH) would be hydrophilic, as these can form hydrogen bonds with water.
Ionic
An R group with a full positive or negative charge, like a positively charged amino group or a negatively charged carboxylate group, would be classified as ionic.
I can describe the effect of level of saturation on function of lipids.
Saturated Fatty Acid:
no double bonds between carbons in the carbon chain; more hydrogen
Undersaturated Fatty Acid: contains one or more double bonds
1.5
I can describe the directionality of a nucleic acid.
From 5’ end (phosphate group attached to the 5th carbon of the sugar) to the 3’ end (hydroxyl group attached to the 3rd carbon of the sugar)
I can describe the directionality of a protein.
The directionality of a protein goes from the N terminal (Amino group - NH2) to the C terminal (Carboxyl group - COOH)
I can identify the appropriate base pairing based on Chargaff’s rules.
Cargaff’s rules consist of
Adenine alway to Thymine
Cytosine always to Guanine
I can identify the location of a growing nucleic acid strand.
It is found on the 3’ of the existing stand
I can describe the levels of folding found in a protein.
Primary - Linear chain of amino acids
Determines genes
Dictates secondary and tertiary forms
Secondary - Coils and folds due to hydrogen bonding within the polypeptide backbone
ß pleated sheet-hydrogen bonding between polypeptide backbone
∂ helix - hydrogen bonding between every 4th amino acid
Tertiary - 3D folding due to interactions between the side chains of amino acids
Reinforced by hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bridges of the side chains
The covalent bond formed between sulfurs atoms of two cysteine monomers
Quaternary - Association of one or more polypeptides
Found only in some proteins
1.6
I can describe the structural similarities between DNA and RNA
Both DNA and RNA have cytosine that goes to guanine.
I can describe the sugar differences between DNA and RNA
I can describe the nitrogenous base differences between DNA and RNA
DNA contains deoxyribose
RNA contains ribose
I can describe the structural differences between polymers of DNA and RNA
DNA is double stranded
RNA is single stranded
I can describe the structural differences between directionality of DNA and RNA
There is NO DIFFERENCE, they both read from 5’ end (phosphate group attached to the 5th carbon of the sugar) to the 3’ end (hydroxyl group attached to the 3rd carbon of the sugar)
Unit 2 : Cell structure and function
2.1 + 2.2
I can describe the structure/function of ribosomes.
Comprised of ribosomal RNA and proteins
they synthesize proteins
found in the cytosol
free ribosomes
synthesize enzymes
also bound to endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope
proteins that are secreted are synthesized in these
I can identify the two types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
rough endoplasmic reticulum
I can describe the structure/ function of rough ER.
Contains ribosomes bound to the ER membrane
synthesis of proteins
I can describe the structure/ function of smooth ER.
No ribosomes
synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, and detoxifies the cell
I can describe the structure/function of Golgi bodies/apparatus/complex.
Made up of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
cytosol seperate them
Has directionality
cis face: receives vesicles from the ER
trans face: sends vesicles back ou into the cytosol to other locations or to the plasma membrane
receives transport vesicles from the ER
modifies the materials
sorts the materials
adds molecular tags
packages materials into new transport vesicles that exit the membrane
I can describe the structure/function of mitochondria
Site of cellular respiration
two membranes
outer membrane is smooth
inner membrane has folds called cristae
Divides the mitochondria into two internal compartments and increases the surface area
Space between the inner and outer membrane is called the intermembrane
mitochondrial matrix: enclosed by the inner membrane
location of the Krebs cycle
contains-
enzymes that catalyse cellular respiration and produce
mitochondrial DNA
ribosomes
the number of mitochondria in a cell correlates with metabolic activity
cells with high metabolic activity have more mitochondria
I can describe the structure/ function of lysosomes.
Membranous sac with hydronic enzymes
hydrolyzes macromolecules in animal cells
autophagy: lysosomes can recycle their own cell’s organic materials
allows the cell to renew itself
I can describe the structure/ function of vacuoles.
Stem from the golgi and ER
selective in transport
food vacuole
form vio phagocytosis (cell eating) and then digested by lysosomes
contractile vacuole
maintain water levels in cells
central vacuole
found in plants
contain inorganic ions and water
important for turgor pressure
I can describe the structure/function of chloroplasts.
Specialised organelles in photosynthetic organisms
site of photosynthesis
contains the green pigment chlorophyll
double membraned
Thylakoids
membranous sacs that can organize into stacks called grana
light dependent reactions occur in grana
stroma
fluid around the thylakoids
contains
chloroplast DNA
enzymes
2.3
I can explain the effect of surface area to volume ratios on exchange of materials between cells and the environment.
Cells need high surface area to volume ratio for better exchange of materials
I can calculate surface area of a sphere.
SA= 4π^2
I can calculate the surface area of a cube.
Height x width x number of sides x number of boxes
I can calculate the surface area of a cylinder.
2πr(r + h)
I can calculate the surface area of a rectangular solid
SA= 6S^2
I can calculate the volume of a sphere.
V= 4/3πr^3
I can calculate the volume of a cube.
Height x width x length x number of boxes
I can calculate the volume of a rectangular solid.
V= S^3
I can calculate the volume of a cylinder.
πR^2h
I can explain which type of cell would be most efficient.
The cell with the highest surface area to volume ratio
I can describe ways that surface area to volume ratio affects heat exchange with the environment.
Smaller cells have better heat exchange
2.4
I can identify the components of the cell membrane.
Lipids
proteins
carbohydrates
I can describe the structure of a phospholipid.
Phosphate group
glycerol
hydrophilic head
hydrophobic tails
I can describe the role of phospholipids in maintaining the internal environment of the cell.
Selective permeability
I can describe embedded proteins.
Proteins embedded in the plasma membrane
I can describe the role of embedded proteins in maintaining the internal environment of the cell.
Embedded proteins regulate what go in and out of the cell
I can describe the fluid mosaic model of cell membranes.
Fluid:
Membrane is held together by weak hydrophobic interactions and can therefore move and shift
temperature affects fluidity
unsaturated hydrocarbon tails help maintain fluidity at low temps
kinked tails prevent tight packing of phospholipids
cholesterol helps maintain fluidity at high and low temps
high temps reduce movement
low temps reduces tight packing of phospholipids
mosaic: comprised of many macromolecules
I can describe the function of glycoproteins.
Carbs bonded to proteins on the plasma membrane
I can describe the function of glycolipids.
Carbs bonded to lipids on the plasma membrane
2.5
I can describe molecules that can freely pass across the membrane.
Small, non polar, hydrophobic molecules
I can describe molecules that require a transport protein to pass across the membrane.
Hydrophilic, polar molecules, large molecule, ions
I can describe the role of the cell wall in terms of maintaining cell structure.
It keeps everything together
I can describe ways that materials can pass through a cell wall
Vacuoles
2.6
I can describe the mechanisms that organisms use to maintain solute balance.
Osmosis
I can describe the mechanisms that organisms use to maintain water balance.
Aquaporins
I can describe passive transport.
Transport that does not require energy
I can describe active transport.
Transport that requires energy
I can describe the mechanisms that organisms use to transport large molecules across the plasma membrane.
Vacuoles and channel proteins
I can describe a concentration gradient.
Substances move from a high to low concentration
I can describe the process of endocytosis.
Molecules entering the cell
I can describe the process of exocytosis.
Molecules exiting the cell
2.7
I can describe ways for charged molecules to pass through the membrane.
Channel proteins
I can describe ways for large polar molecules to pass through the membrane.
Channel proteins
I can describe ways for large quantities of water to pass through the membrane.
Aquaporins
I can identify materials needed of active transport.
pumps
cotransport
exocytosis
endocytosi
2.8
I can explain ways that concentration gradients affect the movement of molecules across membranes.
molecules move from high to low concentration
I can describe hypotonic to the cell.
Cells immersed in a hypotonic solution gain water
I can describe isotonic to the cell.
Maintain water and solute levels
I can describe hypertonic to the cell.
Cells immersed in a hypertonic solution lose water
I can describe water potential.
A physical property that predicts the direction water will flow
I can determine the directionality of water flow when given water potential.
High water potential to areas of low water potential
Low solute to areas of high solute concentration
High pressure to areas of low pressure
I can describe homeostasis.
The balance that needs to be maintained in an organism
I can describe osmoregulation.
Cells must be able to regulate their solute concentrations and maintain water balance
I can describe mechanisms of osmoregulation.
Isotonic
Hypertonic
Hypotonic
I can calculate the solute potential.
Ѱs = -iCRT
I can determine the ionization constant for solutes.
The number of ions formed
Base line number if not told is one
2.9
I can describe the processes that allow molecules to move across membranes.
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated diffusion
Passive transport
Active transport
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
I can describe facilitated diffusion.
Diffusion of molecules through the membrane via transport proteins.
increases rate of diffusion for small ions, water, and carbs
two categories of transport proteins: channel and carrier proteins
each transport protein is specific for substances it can facilitate movement for.
I can describe endocytosis.
The uptake of molecules from vesicles fused from the plasma membrane (examples: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated)
I can describe exocytosis.
The secretion of molecules via vesicles that fuse to the plasma membrane
vesicles can fuse to the membrane by forming a bilayer - once fused, the contents of the vesicle are released to the extracellular fluid
example: nerve cells releasing neurotransmitters
I can compare simple diffusion to facilitated diffusion.
Facilitated diffusion utilizes transport vehicles while simple diffusion does not.
2.10
I can describe membrane bound structures of the eukaryotic cell.
Nuclear envelope
endoplasmic reticulum
golgi complex
lysosomes
vesicles/vacuoles
plasma membrane
mitochondria
chloroplasts
I can describe how the membrane allows for intracellular metabolic processes
It keeps the organelles together, allowing the processes to be finished.
Allows the needed materials into the cell
I can describe how the membrane allows for enzymatic reactions.
The membrane allows the substrates to enter the cell
I can explain ways internal membranes contribute to compartmentalization of eukaryotic cell functions.
The membranes keeps everything together
I can describe the function of the inner membrane folding (cristae) in the mitochondria.
It increases the surface area, increasing the efficiency
I can describe the function of the highly folded membrane in the endoplasmic reticulum.
It increases the surface area, increasing efficiency of material exchange
I can describe the function of the multiple membranous sacs in the Golgi bodies/apparatus.
Each sac has a different function
2.11
I can describe the similarities in compartmentalization between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Both have cell walls
I can describe the differences in compartmentalization between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
✨YAS membrane bound organelles ✨
I can describe the compartmentalization of prokaryotic cells.
Membrane bound organelles and cell walls aid in compartmentalization
I can describe the compartmentalization of eukaryotic cells.
Only the cell wall aids in compartmentalization
I can describe the endosymbiotic theory.
Where years ago, a eukaryotic cell engulfed a prokaryotic cell.
I can describe the origination of membrane bound organelles.
The endosymbiotic theory
I can provide evidence of endosymbiotic theory through similarities of mitochondria/chloroplasts and ancestral species.
Double membraned organelles
Unit 3 : Cellular energies
3.1
I can describe the monomer that makes up an enzyme.
The monomers that makes up enzymes are amino acids
I can describe ways the enzyme changes after binding to a substrate.
After a substrate binds to an enzyme, it becomes an “induced fit”, which is when an enzyme will change the shape of their active site to allow the substrate to bind better.
I can describe why the substrate binds to the enzyme.
The substrate binds to the enzyme because it has an active site, which needs a specific shape of substrate to fit in for a chemical reaction to occur.
I can describe the function of an enzyme.
Enzymes are proteins and macromolecules that catalyze (speed up) reactions by lowering the activation energy.
I can describe ways an enzyme performs its function.
When the substrate binds to the enzyme, the enzyme converts the substrate into products.
3.2
I can explain ways that enzymes affect the rate of biological reactions.
Enzyme Catabolism - enzyme helps break down complex molecules.
Enzyme Anabolism - enzyme helps build complex molecules.
I can explain the difference between an enzyme-catalyzed and uncatalyzed reaction.
An enzyme-catalyzed reaction is a chemical reaction that is significantly sped up by the presence of an enzyme, which acts as a biological catalyst by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to occur, while an uncatalyzed reaction happens without the assistance of an enzyme, meaning it proceeds at a much slower rate due to a higher activation energy barrier.
3.3
I can identify conditions that change the structure of an enzyme.
Enzymes are proteins, which means their 3-D shape can be affected by different factors.
Too high/low temperatures
Enzyme rate will increase to a certain point.
Too high/low pH
Enzyme rate will increase to a certain point.
Chemicals
I can explain ways a change in structure of an enzyme affects its function.
Enzyme Cofactors - non-protein molecules that assist enzyme function
Enzyme Inhibitors - Reduce the activity of specific enzymes
Permanent (covalent bonds)
Reversible (weak interactions)
I can predict changes to reaction rates due to changes in structure of enzyme.
Enzyme Cofactors will increase the enzyme activity rate.
Enzyme Inhibitors
Competitive inhibitors - similar shape to the active site so it will bind first in order to inhibit the substrate from binding
Noncompetitive inhibitors - will bind to the allosteric site of the enzyme in order to morph the active site so substrate cannot
I can describe ways the process of denaturation can be reversible.
Denaturation can be reversible when the denaturing agent is removed, allowing the protein to refold back to its original structure and regain functionality, provided the denaturation is not too extreme and the protein's primary structure (amino acid sequence) remains intact; this is most likely to occur with mild changes in temperature, pH, or ionic strength, enabling the protein to "renature" upon returning to normal conditions.
I can explain ways the cellular environment affects enzyme activity.
The cellular environment significantly impacts enzyme activity by influencing the enzyme's shape and stability, primarily through factors like temperature and pH, which can affect the structure of the active site, determining how well a substrate can bind and react with the enzyme; essentially, if the environment is not optimal for an enzyme, its function will be compromised, potentially slowing down or completely halting the reaction it catalyzes.
Temperature
pH
Chemicals
I can explain the difference hydrogen ion concentration in varying pH.
A varying pH indicates a changing concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, where a lower pH signifies a higher concentration of hydrogen ions (making the solution more acidic), and a higher pH signifies a lower concentration of hydrogen ions (making the solution more basic)
I can explain ways the concentration of reactants affects enzyme activity.
If the concentration is higher, then the enzyme activity will be higher.
I can explain ways the concentration of products affects enzyme activity.
A high concentration of products generally inhibits enzyme activity because the product molecules can bind to the enzyme's active site, competing with the substrate molecules and preventing new reactions from occurring
3.4
I can describe the role of energy in living organisms.
Animals need energy to survive since they have to catch and process food, while plants process the food into glucose.
I can describe that living system require a constant input of energy.
Living systems, from single cells to complex organisms, need a continuous supply of energy to perform all necessary life functions, such as growth, reproduction, movement, and maintaining homeostasis.
I can describe the laws of thermodynamics.
1st Law of Thermodynamics - Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be transferred or transformed.
2nd Law of Thermodynamics - energy transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe during energy, transfers or transformation, some energy is unusable and is often lost as heat.
I can describe ways that order is maintained.
Positive and negative feedback loops maintain homeostasis
I can describe ways that cellular processes are powered.
They are powered through energy, ATP
I can describe energy coupling.
Energy coupling occurs when the energy produced by one reaction or system is used to drive another reaction or system
I can describe the result of loss of energy or energy flow.
When energy is lost or its flow is disrupted within a system, the result is a decline in activity, function, and ultimately, a loss of order, potentially leading to the system becoming stagnant or even collapsing
I can describe the function of controlled energy pathways.
A controlled energy pathway, also known as a regulated metabolic pathway, is a series of chemical reactions within a cell that carefully manages the release and utilization of energy by controlling the activity of enzymes involved in the process, ensuring the cell produces the right amount of energy at the right time and prevents unnecessary energy waste or buildup of harmful byproducts
I can describe the relationship between products of a reaction and reactants of subsequent reaction.
the products formed in the first reaction are then used as starting materials for the next reaction to occur
I can describe metabolic pathways.
Metabolic pathways converts nutrients into usable energy for cellular functions
3.5
I can describe the photosynthetic processes that allow organisms to capture and store energy.
Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms, primarily plants, capture light energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy, storing this energy within organic molecules like glucose, through a series of reactions that utilize carbon dioxide and water, ultimately releasing oxygen as a byproduct; this process occurs within chloroplasts, where chlorophyll pigments absorb light energy, driving the conversion of carbon dioxide into sugar molecules via two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions)
I can describe the location of photosynthesis evolution.
Photosynthesis is located in the leaves and biologically, in the Colorplast.
I can provide evidence to support oxygenation to the atmosphere from cyanobacteria.
Photosynthesis first evolved in prokaryotic organisms, called Cyanobacteria, which oxygenated early Earth.
I can describe the light-dependent reactions.
Occurs in the thylakoid membrane in the photosystems, it convert solar energy to chemical energy
I can describe ways that ATP is synthesized in the light-dependent reactions.
Hydrogen atoms go through the ATP Synthase and binds to ADP to make ATP.
I can describe ways that NADPH is synthesized in the light-dependent reactions.
Hydrogen follows the concentration gradient, moving through PSII, Plastoquinone, cytochrome, plastocyanin, PSI, and Fed/FNR in order to bind to NADP to make NADPH.
I can explain ways cells capture energy from light.
Through photosynthesis, light is converted to energy.
I can explain ways cells transfer energy from light to biological molecules for storage and use.
After energy is created in the Chloroplast, the remaining energy is sent to the Mitochondria which is the powerhouse of the cell.
I can describe chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria that is essential for photosynthesis.
I can explain the effect on electrons after absorbing energy from light.
Electrons will enter their excited state after absorbing energy from light, but eventually it will go back to its ground state.
I can describe the anatomy of the thylakoid membrane (aka the set-up of the photosystems and electron transport chains)
I can describe the photosystem.
Photosystem II -
sunlight energy is captured by chlorophyll molecules and used to split water molecules, extracting electrons from them, releasing oxygen gas as a byproduct, and transferring these energized electrons into the photosynthetic electron transport chain
Photosystem I -
PSI absorbs light energy through pigments like chlorophyll and uses that energy to drive the production of NADPH, a molecule essential for the Calvin cycle, where carbon dioxide is fixed into organic molecules.
I can describe the relationship between the photosystems and the electron transport chain.
PSII and PSI capture light energy and pass high-energy electrons through the electron transport chain. PSII initiates the process, while PSI completes it, ultimately generating ATP and NADPH. These energy-rich molecules are used in the Calvin cycle to convert carbon dioxide into glucose. The electron transport chain plays a critical role in this process by transferring electrons, creating a proton gradient for ATP production, and helping reduce NADP+ to NADPH.
I can explain ways the proton gradient is produced in the electron transport chain.
The proton gradient is produced by:
Water splitting at PSII, which releases protons into the thylakoid lumen.
Proton pumping by the cytochrome b6f complex, which transports protons from the stroma to the lumen.
Electron carriers like plastoquinol transferring protons into the lumen as they move through the electron transport chain.
I can explain the relationship between the proton gradient and ATP synthesis.
The proton gradient fuels the ATP Synthase, providing it with hydrogen atoms.
I can explain the relationship between the light reactions and the Calvin cycle.
The light reactions provide ATP and NADPH for the Calvin Cycle to function.
3.6
I can describe the processes that allow organisms to use energy stored in biological macromolecules.
Cellular respiration
fermentation
fat metabolism
Protein metabolism
anabolic processes
I can describe fermentation.
Lactic acid fermentation
In muscle cells, for example, glucose is converted into lactate, producing ATP in the absence of oxygen
alcoholic fermentation: in yeast, and some bacteria, glucose is converted into ethanol and CO2, also generating ATP without oxygen
I can describe cellular respiration.
Glycolysis: in the cytoplasm, glucose is broken downs to two molecules of pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH
pyruvate oxidation: in the mitochondria, each pyruvate is converted into Acetyl-CoA, which is used in the next step
Citric acid cycle: Acetyl-CoA enter the cycle, generating more NAMD,FADH2,and ATP, along with releasing CO2 as a waste product.
ETC: NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the ETC in the inner mitochondrial membrane, leading to a flow of electrons through protein complexes. This generates a proton gradient through protein complexes, which powers ATP synthase to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
I can identify locations of electron transport chains.
Plasma membrane
I can identify the final electron acceptor in each electron transport chain.
Oxygen
I can describe the process that generates the proton gradient.
NADH and FADH2 donating electrons to the ETC
I can identify the location with the high proton concentration.
ETC
I can describe the effect of a high proton concentration on the pH of a region.
A higher proton concentration means a lower pH
I can compare electron transport chain in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
They are both in the cell membrane
I can describe chemiosmosis.
Proton gradient creation
proton flow through ATp synthèse
ATP production
I can describe photophosphorylation.
Adding a phosphate to a molecule
I can describe ways that endotherms maintain their body temperature.
Internal heat production
thermoregulation
I can explain ways cells obtain energy from biological macromolecules in order to power cellular functions
The conversion of ADP to ATP utilizing ATP synthase
NAD+ to NADH
I can identify the starting materials of glycolysis.
Glucose
2 ATP
I can identify the products of glycolysis.
2 pyruvate molecules
2 ATP molecules
2 NADH molecules
2 H20 molecules of
I can identify where the parts of cellular respiration take place in the cell.
In the cytoplasm and chloroplast
I can identify the starting materials of Krebs cycle.
Acetyl - CoA
I can identify the products of Krebs cycle.
2 CO2
3 NADH
1 FADH2
1 ATP
I can describe the function of ATP hydrolysis.
Conversion of ATP to ADP
3.7
I can explain the connection between variation in the number and types of molecules within cells to the ability of the organism to survive and reproduce in different environment.
Genetic variation and protein diversity
cellular adaptations
gene expression and environmental response
developmental flexibility
symbiosis and microbial interactions
evolutionary significance
I can explain ways variation at the molecular level provides organisms with the ability to respond to environmental stimuli.
Variation at the molecular level, such as differences in protein structure, enzyme function, and membrane composition, allows organisms to respond to environmental stimuli by providing a range of adaptations that enable them to function effectively under diverse conditions, including changes in temperature, pH, nutrient availability, and more
I can explain ways variation in the number of molecules within cells provides organisms a selective advantage.
Metabolic flexibility and resource utilization
stress response and protection
adaptation to temperature
immune system variation
increased reproductive system
resistance to environmental toxins
symbiotic relationships
phenotypic plasticity
I can explain ways variation in the types of molecules within cells provides organisms a selective advantage.
Variation in the types of molecules within cells provides organisms a selective advantage by allowing them to adapt to different environmental conditions, respond to diverse stimuli, and potentially gain beneficial traits that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific environments.
Unit 4 : cell communication and cell cycle
4.1
I can describe ways that cells communicate by direct cell-to-cell contact
Cells communicate through cell junctions
must be adjacent cells
animal cells use gap junctions
plant cells use plasmodesmata
signal passes freely from one cell to another
I can describe ways that cells communicate by chemical signaling
Cells can use direct cell signaling, local signaling and long distance signaling
I can describe ways cells communicate with one another over short distances
Cells will release a chemical message that travels a short distance through extracellular fluid.
Signal is called a ligand
ligand binds to the receptor
I can describe ways cells communicate with one another over long distances
Cells use hormones for long distance signalling
plants release hormones into the plant vascular system or into the air
animals use endocrine signalling which is special cells that release hormones into the circulatory system
I can describe ways cells release signals
Cells release signals through exocytosis
I can describe ways cells receive signals
Cells receive signals by having the specific ligand (signal) to the receptor.
the receptor is either on the plasma membrane or on an organelle inside the cell
I can determine which cells will respond to a specific signaling molecule
Intracellular receptor cells respond to hormones, steroids, and gas signals
plasma membrane receptors respond to polar, water soluble, and large ligands
4.2
I can describe the components of a signal transduction pathway
Reception
Transduction
Response
I can describe the process of reception
The detection and receiving of a Logan by a receptor within the target cell
when the ligand binds to the receptor, the receptor activates via conformational change
The receptors are macromolecules
the ligand and receptor binding process is extremely specific
when the receptor activates, the cell initiates the transduction signal
the receptors can be in the plasma membrane or intracellular
I can describe the process of transduction
The extracellular signal converting to an intracellular signal
signal transduction pathway
a series of changes in a series of molecules
regulates protein activity through phosphorylation (turns on signal) and dephosphorylation (turning off signal)
the signal is amplifies
second messengers
Small, non protein molecules and ions that help relay the message and amplify the response
I can describe the process of response
The final molecule in the pathway converts the signal to a response that will alter a cellular process
I can describe ways that similar signals can lead to different cellular responses in different cells
Alter membrane permeability
enzyme that will change a metabolic pathway
protein that turns genes on or off
I can describe phosphorylation cascades
A sequence of changing events where one enzyme phosphorylates the other, signaling the phosphorylated enzyme to phosphorylate another.
this cycle continues until the signal has traveled far enough
I can describe protein modification in transduction
The receptor that takes in the ligand is a protein.
when the ligand binds to the receptor, the receptor conforms to the ligand, changing the protein shape.
I can describe the role of the ligand in a signal transduction pathway
The ligand binding to the receptor is the first step in th signal transduction pathway
I can describe the role of the receptor in a signal transduction pathway
The receptor takes part in the first and second step of the signal transduction pathway.
the receptor takes in the ligand then starts the amplification process
I can describe the ligand-binding domain of a receptor
Only very specific ligands can bind to very specific receptors
I can describe a G protein-coupled receptors
Largest group cell surface receptors
important in animal sensory systems
amplifies the signal
I can describe a tyrosine kinase receptor
Cell surface receptors that regulate cell functions such as cell growth
I can describe an ion channel receptor
Ligand gated ion channels
plasma membrane receptors
when a ligand binds to the receptor, the ion channel opens similar to a gate
I can describe ways that signals are amplified in the signal transduction pathway
Cell signal amplifiers
GPCRs
4.3
I can describe the role of the environment in causing a cellular response
Chemical signals are released into the air or environment, causing the target cell to receive the signal
I can describe apoptosis
Cell DEATH
4.4
I can explain ways a chance in structure of signaling molecule affects the activity of the pathway
The signaling molecules structure is only able to bind to specific receptors, deciding the signal pathway when the ligand is formed
I can describe the effect of a mutation in the receptor protein
If a receptor protein is mutated, it would change or prevent the ligand from binding, meaning the target cell is not fulfilling the signal
I can describe the effect of a mutation in the transduction protein
If the transduction protein is mutated, the signal will be stopped, not fulfilling the signal transduction
4.5
I can describe positive feedback mechanisms.
The type of feedback that increases the effect of the stimulus
I can describe negative feedback mechanisms.
The type of feedback that decreases the effect of the stimulus
I can describe ways organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis.
They use negative and positive feedback
4.6
I can describe the events of the cell cycle.
Interphase
mitosis
cytokinesis
Apoptosis
I can describe the phases of interphase.
G1
the first gap phase
grows and carries out normal functions
S
the synthesis phase
DNA replication and chromosome replication
G2
the second gap phase
final growth and preparation for mitosis
I can describe the phases of mitosis.
Prophase
Chromatin condenses
nucleoli disappear
sister chromatids form
mitotic spindle begins to form
centrosomes move away from each other
prometaphase
nuclear envelope fragments
microtubules enter the nuclear are and some attach to kinetochores
metaphase
centrosomes are at opposite poles
chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
microtubules are attached to the kinetochore
anaphase
sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the ell due to the microtubules shortening
Cell elongates
telophase and cytokinesis
two daughter nuclei form
nucleoli reappear
chromosomes become less condensed
cytokinesis occurs
animals: a cleavage furrow appears due to a contractile ring of actin filaments
plants: vesicles produced by the Golgi travel to the middle of the cell and form a plate
I can describe the phases of meiosis.
The same as mitosis but it is repeated twice, making four sister reproductive cells
I can describe G0.
A state when the cell does not duplicate
used for either cell repairing or deciding if the cell needs to go through apoptosis
4.7
I can describe the interaction between cyclin and cyclin dependent kinase.
Cyclins active their specific cyclin dependent kinases
I can describe the effects of disruptions on the cell cycle on the cell.
The cell cycle would not be regulated
I can describe the effects of cancer on the cell cycle
The cell cycle continues and never stops until it is forced too
I can describe the causes of apoptosis.
Cancerous cells are made
damaged cells