West African Empires: Ghana, Mali, and Songhai

Study Unit 1: West African Empires

Lesson Outcomes

  • Demonstrate the ability to fulfill the role of scholar, researcher, and lifelong learner by researching the revolutionary role of the camel as desert transport and the spread of the Islamic faith in West Africa.
  • Discuss the factors which stimulated the early development of the Ghanaian state.
  • Analyze reasons for the decline of the kingdom of Ghana.
  • Explain the reasons for the rise and fall of Malian and Songhayan Empires.
  • Evaluate the social, economic, and political significance of the West African Empires of Mali and Songhay.

Key Questions to Consider

  • Analyze how the gold and salt trade in Africa facilitated the spread of ideas and trade.
  • Describe how the rulers of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai built strong kingdoms.
  • Summarize how other West African societies developed.

Types of Sources

Primary Sources

  • Considered first-hand experience or knowledge; refers to original content.
  • Examples:
    • Photographs of historical events
    • News articles
    • Novels and short stories
    • Autobiographies by historical or famous people
    • Letters and journals
    • Published essays and opinion pieces
    • Original works of art
    • Documentaries
    • Excerpts from radio broadcasts and podcasts
    • Data from studies and surveys
    • Poll results
    • Recordings of speeches, music, and other performances

Secondary Sources

  • Considered second-hand experiences or knowledge; content has been adapted.
  • Examples:
    • Essays analyzing novels, works of art, and other original creations
    • Textbook passages discussing specific concepts, events, and experiments
    • Biographies of historical and famous people
    • Books about specific events, concepts, movements, and works
    • Critical works by academics and professional critics (e.g., a film critic’s review of a movie)
    • Political commentary

Oral History

  • (Definition of oral history is not explicitly provided in the transcript.)

Trans-Saharan Trade

Origins

  • The Phoenicians, originating from present-day Lebanon around 1000 BCE, built their wealth on Mediterranean coastal trade.
  • They sought valuable metals like gold, copper, silver, and lead, establishing trading stations along the North African coast.
  • By 800 BCE, these settlements became independent colonies, with Carthage in modern Tunisia being the most famous.

The Role of Camels

  • Trans-Saharan trade involved long-distance travel across the desert.
  • Initially, trade was sporadic and small-scale, using pack oxen and donkeys.
  • Camels, adapted to cover distances between oases, changed the nature of the trade around 250 BCE, making it less risky.

Berber People and Oases

  • At oases, people picked dates, and their cattle grazed.
  • Wealthy Berbers possessed horses, useful in times of war.
  • During droughts, they moved with their cattle to southern grasslands, often conflicting with agricultural communities of the Sahel (meaning "coast" in Arabic).

Ghana

The Soninke People

  • The inhabitants of ancient Ghana were the Soninke.
  • Their iron-working skills allowed them to establish larger communities and overwhelm others with superior iron weapons.
  • As the Sahara became drier, Berber nomads moved further into the Sahel for grazing.
  • During dry times, this inward movement turned into large-scale raids on established farming societies in the Sahel.
  • The Soninke farmers defended the area against the Berbers.
  • This unity against robberies stimulated the formation of the ancient Kingdom of Ghana.
  • The growth and expansion of the Trans-Saharan trade was an important factor in Ghana's development.
  • Salt from the Sahara was exchanged for goods like grain.
  • The Soninke acted as middlemen in the gold trade.

Importance of Salt

  • Salt was a highly valued commodity traded for gold.

Islamic Influence and the Gold Trade

  • By the 8th-9th centuries, African Arabs became more involved in the gold trade.
  • They built Islamic trade cities, expanding the trans-Saharan trade routes.
  • Traders bought gold and financed Berber camel caravans, converting many Berber nomads to Islam.
  • This fostered brotherhood and cooperation, making trade routes safer.
  • Gold demand increased as North African kingdoms started using gold coins.
  • Many Berber nomads became full-time desert traders.
  • Increased gold trade directly contributed to the growth of Ghana and later Mali.

Ghana's Wealth

  • Ghana's rulers controlled the gold and salt trade across West Africa due to their location.
  • The king collected tolls on goods entering and leaving Ghana, earning the city the nickname "The Land of Gold" (El Dorado).
  • Kumbi Saleh served as the last great capital of Ghana.
  • It consisted of two separate walled towns.
  • The king lived in the first town, with the royal palace surrounded by domed buildings.
  • The second town housed prosperous Muslim merchants from the north of the Sahara, who traded there.

The Wangara

  • The Wangara are a subgroup of the Soninke who later became assimilated merchant classes specializing in Trans-Saharan and secret gold dust trade.
  • Their diaspora operated throughout West Africa's Sahel-Sudan region.
  • They fostered regionally organized trade networks and architecture projects.
  • They were based in many Sahelian and Niger-Volta-Sene-Gambia river city-states.

Islamic Influence in Ghana

  • The King used Muslims as officials and counselors.
  • Ghana adopted some military ideas about government from the Muslims.
  • Muslim merchants introduced Arabic language and writing.
  • Islamic scholars and clerics traveled with merchants bringing ideas of education.
  • Other rulers adopted Islam, leading to their countries converting as well.

Ghana's Decline

  • In 1050, the Almoravids (Muslim Berbers) invaded from North Africa and took over Ghana.
  • They conquered Ghana briefly but could not hold it due to the distance.
  • Ghana continued to decline until it was taken over by Mali.

Mali

Rise of the Malian Empire

  • The kingdom of Mali in West Africa was established during the 13th and 14th centuries.
  • It was considered the second biggest kingdom and the richest of its time.

Factors Contributing to the Rise of Mali

  • Bure became the new source of gold.
  • The Sosso clan, a southern Soninke group under Sumagune, organized raids, killed kings and leaders, and took their tributes.
  • During the 12th century, they also attacked the Soninke and Malinke.
  • A Malinke survivor of the Sosso attacks, Sundjata, reorganized the army and diffused Sosso attacks.
  • Thus, the ancient kingdom of Mali was established.

Mansa Musa

  • Mansa Musa came into power in 1312, pushing westward to the Atlantic Ocean and north to capture cities.
  • He converted to Islam but did not force his subjects to convert, promoting religious tolerance.
  • In 1324, he made a pilgrimage to Mecca.
  • This allowed him to forge diplomatic and economic ties with other Muslim countries.
  • He returned home with scholars, architects, and teachers.
  • These Muslims introduced the Arab lifestyle and mosques which helped to foster religion and education.
  • Word of his pilgrimage reached Europe, who became interested in the gold as they started to use gold coins.

Growth of Timbuktu

  • On his way back home, Mansa Musa built a mosque and a palace in Timbuktu.
  • The city drew hundreds of Muslim scholars like doctors, priests, and judges.
  • The University of Timbuktu reportedly had 25,000 students at its height.
  • The university reflects on Islam’s emphasis on education and showed how Islam spread peacefully through trade and centers of learning.

Administration

  • Literate Muslims were important officials like accountants.
  • Remote areas were managed by chieftains appointed by the king.
  • The chieftains regularly took tribute to the king.
  • The king had a standing army ready for any confrontation.
  • Each group was under the control of an appointed commander.
  • Each group also existed out of horse riders and foot soldiers armed with arrows, bows, and spears.
  • They protected the king against invasions.
  • They patrolled the trade routes.
  • They also made sure that the chieftains pay tribute to the king.

Economy

  • Apart from the payment of tribute, taxes on trade was also charged.
  • Different areas specialized in different types of farming.
  • Wheat and rice in one area, whilst they farmed with sheep, goats, and camels in another area.
  • Areas could also trade with each other.
  • The independent farmers lived in small family groups in villages.
  • They (the farmers) have given a part of the surplus to the district chief.
  • He (the chief) in return gave it to the government (king).
  • The king also had government-owned farms.
  • The army kept supervision over the slaves on the farms.
  • The yields were used to provide the army with food.
  • Gold and salt trade were, however, the most important components of ancient Mali's economy.
  • The king did not control the goldfields.
  • The people of the goldfields would stay independent at all costs. (They also did not announce where the goldfields are.)
  • They did, however, pay tribute to the king to show they recognize him as leader.
  • If the king wanted to get involve with their affairs, they simply stopped production. (Like the time the king wanted them to convert to the Islam religion.)
  • The king also had professional hunters that went deep into the forest to exchange Cola nuts.
  • Trade goods was transported to large trading cities like Walata and Timbuktu.
  • During the 14th century is cowry shells used as a currency.
  • It improved tax collection.
  • Also makes internal exchange of food and goods easier.

The King and Management

  • Tax on salt trade was charged.
  • It provided the king of the greater part of his fortune.
  • Gold trading is not formally taxed - king kept the large gold nuggets for himself but the finer gold and gold dust could be traded.
  • The king appointed literate Muslim secretaries and ministers to keep track of trade and taxes.
  • King did not have strict control over remote areas - local chiefs.

The Fall of Mali

  • After Mansa Musa- Mali had various inept leaders- Monarchy
  • Timbuktu was an important trade city and center of learning in ancient Mali.
  • Tuareg Berbers conducted raids on the city and took it over.- Smaller tribes in Mali fracture
  • They, however, realized that it was a source of prosperity and did not change much of the daily lifestyle.
  • The economy and intellectual life of Timbuktu further developed and extended.
  • Most Berber Moslem traders moved to Timbuktu.
  • With the Berber take-over of Timbuktu, the ancient Kingdom deteriorated.

Songhai

Rise of the Songhai Empire

  • With the deterioration of Mali in the 15th century the kingdom of Songhai grew more powerful.
  • Under Sonni Sulayman Dandi the army of Songhai was reorganised and extended their area.
  • Reclaimed Timbuktu from Tuareg Berbers and re- established trade networks.
  • His successor was known as Sonni Ali the Great.
  • During his reign, the kingdom of Songhai overshadowed Mali.
  • Sonni Ali took-over Djenne and Timbuktu during 1468.

The Askiya Dynasty

  • The Sonni dynasty was followed by the Askiya dynasty.
  • Askiya Mohammad also undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca
  • On the journey he was acknowledge as the Muslim-leader of the whole Sudan (calif).
  • Hereby his power was official.
  • After he returned, he developed Timbuktu as an important Islam center of learning and education.
  • Because he promoted the Islam religion trade also improved and extended.

Timbuktu

  • Founded in the 5th century, Timbuktu was a great cultural, religious, and economic center. The city reached the height of its power in the 1400s and 1500s.
    • The Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu underscored the importance of education and of Islam in that city.

Central Government

  • There were 5 main positions in the Songhai government:
    • Secretary: Handled all correspondence.
    • Master of water: Was in control of water sources and the amount of water available.
    • Minister of Home Affairs: Was appointed over all the governors of the provinces.
    • Minister of Agriculture: Was in control of the king's property. Princes resided on the ground.
    • Minister of Finances: Was in control of the budget and the payments/salaries.

Provinces

  • There were two groups of provinces:
    • The provinces that were obtained through military victory: They were under the direct control of the king himself. The king appointed governors for each of these provinces.
    • Vassal colonies: Not directly under the king, but local laws and legislation. Here appointed chieftains were accepted by the king. The king did not get involved with their affairs – as long as they paid tribute and gave him gifts. The king used the chieftains and their men if he needed to go to war.

Trade

  • Trade goods: Gold, kola nuts, salt, cowry shells, Material, linen and horses for the army, Slaves that were captured and sold.

Decline of Songhai

  • Even though the kingdom of Songhay had considerable wealth obtained through trade, they faced internal problems.
  • Internal conflicts arose due to the diverse nature of the inhabitants of the kingdom.
  • It was also felt that Islamic administrators alienated the king from his position of rule.
  • Almost all the kings who ruled during the Songhay empire were killed due to revolts, assassinations, and conspiracies.
  • In 1582- Morocco invaded the South to claim trade territory.
  • In 1591- 3000 soldiers (Many slaves of European descent) invaded the territory
  • The Moroccans possessed weapons superior to that of Songhay.
  • Songhay would later face further incursions from the east solidifying their fall.