The Independence of Haiti and South American Liberation Movements

The Independence of Haiti and the Revolutionary Example

Haiti achieved its independence at the early date of $1804$, establishing itself as a foundational example for the remaining American colonies. The territory of Haiti was located on the island of La Española, which notably served as the first Spanish colony in the Americas. However, by the end of the century, the western region of La Española was ceded to France, which renamed it Santo Domingo. Following this transition, the area became the most prosperous European colony in the Antillas, a wealth largely driven by the intensive exploitation of sugarcane. This agricultural production was carried out on massive plantations where enslaved men and women from Africa performed the labor; these enslaved individuals eventually constituted the vast majority of the Haitian population.

While many free men within the colonial Haitian society defended the institution of slavery, the society was riddled with internal tensions and differences. Many of these conflicts erupted shortly after the start of the French Revolution. In $1791$, these various social factions were surprised when the enslaved population seized the revolutionary banners of equality and fraternity, which were copied from French revolutionary discourse. The enslaved population rebelled against their owners and colonial officials. From that moment on, they fought to reach the end of slavery. In collaboration with mulattos and blacks, they proclaimed the independence of Santo Domingo in $1804$, which was then renamed Haiti. The final defeat of the French forces occurred at the Battle of Vertières in $1804$.

The Revolutionary Movement in Venezuela and the First Republic

The Venezuelan independence movement was triggered by news regarding the dissolution of the Junta Central in Spain. On April 19, $1810$, a group of Venezuelan criollos deposed the Spanish authorities and established a local junta of government. This new government initially claimed to rule in the name of Fernando VII and called for the election of deputies for a general congress, which eventually convened in March $1811$. During this period, a deliberative body known as the Sociedad Patriótica de Caracas was created. This society gathered the most prominent criollo sectors, specifically those linked to commercial and agricultural activities, along with some mestizos committed to the revolutionary cause. Key participants included Simón Bolívar, a member of one of the region's wealthiest families, and Francisco de Miranda, who became the spokesperson for the most radicalized sector advocating for immediate independence from Spain.

These radicalized sectors successfully pushed for a General Congress which, on July 5, $1811$, formally declared the Independence of Venezuela. Months later, a constitutional text was sanctioned, establishing a republic based on a federal and liberal model. However, in the social sphere, the movement's leaders remained quite conservative. Although the constitution technically eliminated legal discrimination against colonial castes, in practice, social structures did not change significantly. Furthermore, while the leaders prohibited the trafficking of people, they maintained the institution of slavery intact. This was because many of the revolutionary leaders had built their wealth on cocoa production from plantations that depended entirely on enslaved labor.

The Royalist Reaction and the Fall of the Republics

The Spanish reaction to Venezuelan independence was immediate; the Consejo de Regencia declared Caracas to be in rebellion, sent new authorities, and initiated a period of harsh repression. The patriot troops were unable to contain the Spanish army due to a lack of support from the popular sectors, who did not perceive any benefits from the new political order. Both enslaved people and the llaneros (inhabitants of the plains forced to work as peons on estates) joined the Spanish forces, accelerating the surrender of the revolutionaries. By mid-$1812$, royalist troops entered Caracas, causing the fall of the First Republic. Bolívar and many other officers took refuge in Nueva Granada, where they organized a new army to recover Caracas, succeeding in August $1813$ and initiating the Second Republic.

During the Second Republic, Bolívar declared a "war to the death" against all Spaniards who opposed the revolution, while simultaneously decreeing a general amnesty for moderate criollos to win them over to the cause. While the Constitution of $1811$ was restored, greater powers were granted to the Executive branch, held by Bolívar. However, the llaneros, this time led by José Tomás Boves, again joined a new Spanish army after being promised the properties of the revolutionary criollos. In June $1814$, the patriot forces were defeated once more, and Bolívar was forced to seek refuge in the Antillas.

The Restoration of Fernando VII and the Reconquista

By $1815$, the independence projects in America seemed to be crumbling. Following the defeat of Napoleon, Europe fell under the control of the Santa Alianza, and Fernando VII recovered the Spanish throne, restoring the absolute monarchy. The King sent an expedition to America commanded by Pablo Morillo with the specific goal of recovering the colonies. The plan was to begin in Venezuela and advance southward. In $1816$, Morillo's expedition took Bogotá, where a criollo-dominated junta had been formed in $1810$. Morillo implemented severe measures including massive executions and the confiscation of goods, forcing surviving revolutionaries in Nueva Granada to flee to the Venezuelan border.

The Strategic Shift and the Formation of Gran Colombia

While in refuge in Haiti, Simón Bolívar fundamentally changed his military and political tactics. He realized that to defeat the royalist troops, it was essential to incorporate the llaneros into the revolutionary forces. He achieved this goal in $1816$ when the llanero leader José Antonio Páez decided to join his troops with the liberating forces. To attract these sectors, Bolívar proposed equality between castes and criollos, the distribution of royalist lands, access to military promotions for all, and the emancipation of slaves. This allowed Bolívar to transform the image of the revolution, which had previously only favored the criollo elite.

Starting from the plains, Bolívar and Páez organized an expedition toward Nueva Granada that involved a difficult crossing of the Andes Mountains. During this journey, they recruited more soldiers, forming a massive liberating army that defeated the royalists at Boyacá. They entered Bogotá in $1819$. The liberation of Venezuela was eventually completed after the revolutionary victory at the Battle of Carabobo on June 24, $1821$. Following these victories, the Congress of Cúcuta defined the political organization of a new state: the República de Colombia (or Gran Colombia), which integrated the territories of the former Captaincy General of Venezuela, the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada, and Ecuador.

The Political Climate in Peru and Alto Perú

Peru remained the final stronghold of royalist power in South America. The local inhabitants stayed largely removed from revolutionary movements due to the privileges of the powerful Lima elite, who held numerous titles and were closely linked to the Spanish peninsulars through economic and family ties. Additionally, a strong Spanish military presence maintained control, a necessity proven during the repression of the Túpac Amaru rebellion in the late $18$th century. The Viceroy of Peru also enjoyed the financial backing of the Lima Consulate to fund campaigns against neighboring revolutionary territories. Conversely, in Alto Perú (modern-day Bolivia), discontent was rising. This was largely due to its $1776$ incorporation into the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and the establishment of the intendancy system in $1782$, both of which increased fiscal pressure.

In May $1809$, Chuquisaca became the site of the first independence movement in Spanish America with the creation of a government junta. However, this moderate movement was stifled, and its leaders were merely detained with their assets embezzled. The movement spread to La Paz, where a Cabildo Abierto deposed the authorities in July and formed the Junta Tuitiva. While this junta had mestizo support, it failed to gain the backing of indigenous groups or the criollo elite, who feared a massive mobilization of popular sectors. Consequently, the movement was isolated and defeated by royalist forces from Lima and Buenos Aires in October $1809$. When Fernando VII returned to the throne, many elites in Peru and Alto Perú were willing to continue the colonial pact, though underground sectors in Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, and Cuzco still sought dissolution of colonial ties despite lacking resources.

The Southern Campaigns and the Final End of Royalism

External forces eventually brought independence to Peru and Alto Perú. In $1817$, General José de San Martín crossed the Andes with approximately $5,500$ men, defeating royalists at Chacabuco, Chile, with the support of Chilean revolutionaries who had fled to Mendoza. Bernardo O'Higgins was subsequently named the Supreme Director of the new Chilean republic. After securing independence at the Battle of Maipú in $1818$, San Martín organized a naval expedition in August $1820$ from Valparaíso to Peru.

Viceroy José de Abascal, who governed from $1806$ to $1816$, had built a powerful army supported by criollos who preferred Spanish rule over the social equality proposed by revolutionaries. However, the high cost of maintaining the royalist army eventually turned the local population against the Spanish. This created a favorable environment for San Martín, who entered Lima and proclaimed the Independence of Peru in July $1821$. Royalist resistance continued until Simón Bolívar advanced to Guayaquil while attempting to eliminate royalist pockets in southern Nueva Granada. In July $1822$, Bolívar and San Martín met in Guayaquil; following this encounter, Bolívar took charge of the Peruvian struggle, and San Martín departed from the territory he had liberated. The definitive capitulation of the royalist army occurred at the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, $1824$, led by Antonio José de Sucre. Finally, on August 6, $1825$, an assembly in Chuquisaca proclaimed the independence of Alto Perú, creating the República de Bolívar, which later became Bolivia.