AP World History Modern: Comprehensive Semester 1 Review Notes
The Evolution of Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism in Ancient China
Confucianism was originally established in the year and was founded upon the beliefs of Confucius and his subsequent followers. This philosophical system posited that an effective and good government was fundamentally dependent upon the presence of wise leaders who ruled specifically for the benefit of the populace. A tangible product of these Confucian ideals was the implementation of the Civil Service Examinations by rulers of the Han Dynasty. These rigorous examinations were designed to recruit the most talented individuals for roles as government officials, ensuring a meritocratic bureaucracy. However, following the eventual fall of the Han Dynasty, the lack of a centralized national government meant that these civil service exams could no longer be administered. Consequently, Confucianism lost a significant portion of its popular support during this period of instability, which allowed for the growth and spread of Buddhism throughout the region.
During the Tang Dynasty, and continuing into the subsequent Song Dynasty, the government provided substantial support for the development and propagation of Neo-Confucianism. This evolved version of the philosophy was created, in part, to counteract and reduce the widespread popularity of Buddhism. Neo-Confucianism introduced the teaching that life in the physical world was of equal importance to the afterlife. It placed a heavy expectation on its followers to remain actively involved in worldly life and to offer assistance to others. This new iteration of the belief system also integrated certain elements of Buddhist and Daoist spirituality. It transitioned from being strictly a system of social and ethical rules for conduct into a more formalized religion with specific beliefs regarding the spiritual world. It taught that by following the teachings of Confucius, individuals could achieve peace of mind and live in a state of harmony with nature, emphasizing a distinct balance between humanity and the natural environment. Ultimately, Neo-Confucianism served as a strategic tool to strengthen the stability and authority of the government.
Structural Similarities and Impacts of Confucian Ideologies on the Song Dynasty
Despite the evolution from traditional Confucianism to Neo-Confucianism, several core pillars remained constant across both systems. Both ideologies were strictly patriarchal and upheld a complex bureaucracy that relied heavily on the Civil Service Examination system for the selection of its members. They were both rooted deeply in the original teachings of Confucius and those of his disciples. Furthermore, both systems emphasized the importance of tradition, mandated a profound respect for elders, and served to maintain and reinforce the existing social hierarchy within Chinese society.
In the specific context of the Song Dynasty, these ideological frameworks had profound impacts on the development of the state. They contributed significantly to a rise in scholarship, which manifested in major advancements in the realms of visual art and poetry. Additionally, these beliefs led to the establishment and empowerment of the Censorate. This was a high-level supervisory agency designed to maintain rigorous checks on the character and the professional competence of public officials, ensuring they adhered to the ethical and administrative standards expected of them.
Global Periodization and Key Civilizations from 1200 to 1450
The period from to was marked by the rise and fall of several significant dynasties and empires across the globe. In China, this era saw the transition from the Song Dynasty to the Yuan Dynasty, which was established by the Mongol invaders. This period was characterized by the practices of footbinding, the continued influence of Neo-Confucianism, and a significant expansion of the state bureaucracy. The Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty also ensured the security of the Silk Roads, facilitating increased trade, and managed an expansive territory that included several tributary states.
In the West, the Crusades were a defining series of conflicts intended to save the Holy Land from Muslim control, though the success of this religious mission is often viewed with skepticism. However, a major and lasting effect of the Crusades was the establishment of robust trade routes between the worlds of Islam and Christendom. This exchange introduced various goods to Europe, most notably sugar. Meanwhile, several Islamic Empires flourished during this timeframe, including the Umayyad, the Abbasid, and the Mughal, as well as the culture of Al-Andalus in modern-day Spain. These empires experienced Golden Ages characterized by the establishment of major universities and world-class trading centers in cities like Baghdad and Istanbul.
Advanced Societies in the Americas, Europe, and Africa (1200-1450)
In South America, the Inca Empire developed a sophisticated bureaucracy and maintained control through an extensive tribute system. Lacking a written language in the traditional sense, they utilized the Quipu—a system of knotted strings—for record-keeping and data management. Simultaneously, the Byzantine Empire faced a period of decline, losing significant territory to expanding Islamic Empires and suffering from a weakened central government. Despite these challenges, it remained the primary center for the Eastern Orthodox Church until the year , when its capital city, Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Turks.
This era was also the zenith of the Mongol Empire, a nomadic power that established the Yuan Dynasty in China and was instrumental in reinvigorating the trade networks of the Silk Roads. Their dominance fostered heavy contact with Europeans, as evidenced by the travels of figures like Marco Polo. In West Africa, the Mali Empire emerged as a major center of trade in the Sub-Saharan region. Its immense wealth was derived primarily from the trade of gold and salt. The empire’s most famous ruler, Mansa Musa, is renowned for his extraordinary wealth and his pilgrimage to Mecca, which showcased Mali's resources to the rest of the world.
The Era of Gunpowder Empires and Global Exchange (1450-1750)
The period spanning to is often characterized by the rise of the "Gunpowder Empires," which included the Ottomans, the Safavids, and the Mughals. These states were defined by their ability to build and sustain expansive empires through military conquest, specifically through the effective and strategic use of firearms. Each of these empires was governed by an absolute monarch who derived state revenue from the taxation of their large, primarily agrarian populations. Notably, these rulers managed and governed highly diverse populations with varying ethnic and religious backgrounds.
Parallel to the rise of these land-based powers was a global surge in exchange and exploration. Trade routes like the Silk Roads, the South China Sea, the Mediterranean, the Trans-Saharan routes, and the Indian Ocean became busier than ever. Exploration reached new heights with the Chinese maritime expeditions of Zheng He in the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean. European nations also began their maritime expansions: the Portuguese explored coastal Africa, reached the Indian Ocean, and colonized Brazil; Spain established presence in Latin America and the Philippines; and the Dutch expanded into India. This era also saw the rise of powerful entities like the British and Dutch East India Companies, which controlled vast trade networks.
Cultural and Religious Shifts: Renaissance and Reformation (1450-1750)
In Europe, the years between and were shaped by the Renaissance and the Reformation. The Renaissance, which had its beginnings in Florence, Italy, was marked by a shift toward secular thought and a significant rise in humanism. This era produced new artistic techniques, such as the use of perspective, and fostered major advances in science and mathematics. It was also defined by a renewal of interest in ancient Greek and Roman philosophies.
Following this cultural rebirth was the Protestant Reformation, which began in the Germanic states when Martin Luther posted his Theses. Luther’s teachings emphasized the concept of "Salvation Through Faith Alone" and vehemently criticized the Catholic Church’s sale of indulgences as a corrupt practice. The ideas of the Reformation spread rapidly across Europe, aided by the invention of the printing press and exacerbated by various military conflicts. In response, the Catholic Church initiated the Counter Reformation to address its internal problems. Central to this movement was the Council of Trent, which formally established permanent Catholic church doctrine to counter the Protestant challenges.
Global Commodities and the Ming Dynasty (1450-1750)
The Ming Dynasty in China represented a period of "recovery" following the era of Mongol rule. The Ming sought to reinstate the cultural history of earlier Chinese dynasties and re-established the traditional civil service exam system while also engaging in significant maritime exploration. On a global scale, silver became the standard for currency, with the largest mine in the world located at Potosi in modern-day Peru. The immense value of silver transport led to a rise in piracy in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Sugar also became an essential global commodity during this time. The first sugar plantations were established in the Mediterranean, but the industry soon expanded to the New World. This expansion created a massive and tragic demand for slave labor. While the African slave trade had been initiated by Muslim merchants several centuries prior, Europeans entered into the trade with Africa in the first decade of the ’s. The vast majority of enslaved individuals were sent to work on sugar plantations in Brazil and the Caribbean. The Middle Passage—the brutal journey across the Atlantic between West Africa and the New World—became a core component of the Columbian Exchange.
Specialized Trade, Technology, and the Impact of Marco Polo
Historically, the process of spinning thread was a task performed largely by peasant women, and the economic benefits of this industry were particularly significant for Chinese and European societies. Technological advancements in maritime trade also played a crucial role in global expansion. The Dhow, a vessel of either Arabic or Indian origin, was used extensively for trade across the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. This ship was characterized by its use of the lateen sail, which allowed for better navigation by catching the wind effectively.
Individual travel also had a profound impact on global history. Marco Polo, a merchant from Venice, Italy, traveled to China during the era of Mongol rule and served within the court of the Great Khan. His written accounts of his travels introduced Europeans to the wonders of China and inspired subsequent explorers, including Christopher Columbus. On the political front, the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed in . Mediated by the Pope between Spain and Portugal, the treaty established a line of demarcation in the New World. All territory to the right of the line was designated as belonging to Portugal (securing their claim to Brazil), while territory to the left was assigned to Spain.
Political Structures and Regional Empires in Southeast Asia
In the maritime and political spheres, piracy remained a constant threat. Pirates targeted ships for valuable cargo, including silver, sugar, rum, and firearms. Politically, the development of representative legislatures, such as the British Parliament and the French Estate System (which consisted of three estates), marked a revolutionary shift in governance. These bodies allowed social classes other than the nobility to participate in the policy-making process, thereby stripping some power from absolute monarchs and reinforcing the ideals of constitutionalism.
In Southeast Asia, major regional powers like the Srivijaya Empire and the Khmer Empire flourished. The Srivijaya Empire, which lasted from the to the centuries, controlled parts of modern-day Indonesia and the Malay Archipelago. They were a major trading power, dealing in spices, ivory, and tin, and they incorporated Buddhist and Chinese political practices into their own traditions. The Khmer Empire, centered at the massive capital of Angkor Thom, governed territories in present-day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and southern Vietnam for nearly five hundred years. The Khmer rulers were viewed as god-kings, though their power was not strictly hereditary; instead, male members of the royal family competed for the throne upon the death of an emperor.
The English Civil War and the Shift to Parliamentary Sovereignty
The English Civil War was a pivotal series of conflicts and political maneuvers between the Parliamentarians and the Royalists, focused primarily on how England should be governed. The outcome of these wars had three major immediate consequences: the trial and execution of King Charles I in , the exile of his son Charles II in , and the replacement of the monarchy with the Commonwealth of England (). This was followed by the Protectorate under the personal rule of Oliver Cromwell. Constitutionally, these events established the critical precedent that an English monarch could not rule without the consent of Parliament. This concept of Parliamentary sovereignty was eventually legally solidified as a permanent part of the English government during the Glorious Revolution of .